





HI 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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Chap. Copyright No..._. 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 



AN 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FOR THE 



HIGHER GRADES IN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 



ADAPTED FROM 



"ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH .-GRAMMAR" 

By PROFESSOR W. D. WHITNEY 

of Yale University 



WITH NEW ARRANGEMENT AND ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 
SUITABLE FOR YOUNGER PUPILS 



BY 



MRS. SARA E. H. /LOCK WOOD 

Author of "Lessons in English" 



20 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 

1892 






f* 



Copyright, 1892, 
By W. D. WHITNEY. 



All Rights Reserved. 



Typography by J. S. Gushing & Co., Boston, U.S.A. 
Presswork by Ginn & Co., Boston, U.S.A. 



PREFACE. 



This adaptation of Whitney's " Essentials of Eng- 
lish Grammar'' is designed to furnish a simple and 
practical text-book for pupils who are not of suffi- 
cient maturity to use with advantage the original 
work. To this end, a new book has been made with 
topical arrangement, abundant exercises of a more 
elementary style, and a generally simplified treatment. 

While the intention has been to embody all the 
excellent features of the " Essentials," it has some- 
times seemed best to sacrifice inductive development 
of a subject to clearness and conciseness of expres- 
sion, since it is presupposed that the classes for whom 
this book is intended have already had some elemen- 
tary introduction to the study of English. 

It should be understood that, in using the book, 
the order of chapters is not, of necessity, to be strictly 
followed. For instance, the chapter on "Infinitives 
and Participles " may be studied, as a whole or in 
part, directly after the same subject, as treated in the 
chapter on " Verbs." Again, the analysis of sen- 
ill 



IV PREFACE. 

tences may and should be studied in connection with 
the parsing of exercises in the early chapters of the 
book. 

It should be added that the " Essentials " will con- 
tinue to be published for the use of those who desire 
a book of its grade. 

December, 1891. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Introduction : Language and Grammar 1 

II. The Sentence : the Parts of Speech 10 

III. Nouns , 30 

IV. Pronouns 60 

V. Adjectives 82 

VI. Verbs 106 

VII. Adverbs 156 

VIII. Prepositions 166 

IX. Conjunctions 173 

X. Interjections 181 

XI. Infinitives and Participles 185 

XII. Rules of Syntax 199 

XIII. Analysis : the Simple Sentence 203 

XIV. Analysis: Compound and Complex Sentences 217 

v 



LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. —LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

1. The English Language. — There are hundreds of 
languages spoken in the world, and the only way in 
which we can define any one of them is to say that it is 
the language spoken in such and such a country or by 
such and such a people. The English Language 
may, therefore, be defined as the language spoken by 
the people of England, and by all who speak like them 
anywhere else in the world ; for example, in the United 
States. Since our language gets its name from the peo- 
ple living in England, we must look a little into their 
history, in order to understand why we speak as we do. 

2. The Early Inhabitants of England. — In early 
times, the country which we know as England was called 
Britain, and its inhabitants were called Britons. They 
belonged to the same Celtic (or Keltic) race which then 
lived in France and Spain. Their language was very 
different from the English, being much like what the 
language of Wales is at the present day. Indeed, the 
modern Welsh people are the descendants of these old 
Britons. 

3. The Coming of the English into Britain. — 

About fifteen hundred years ago, the ancestors of the 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

English people came over to Britain from their homes 
on the northern shores of Germany, and killed or drove 
out of the country the Celtic people whom they found 
there. Then they took possession of the country, and 
in time formed a new nation. There were several tribes 
of these Germans — the Jutes, the Angles, and the Sax- 
ons. The name Anglo-Saxon is made from the names 
of the most powerful tribes. The Angles finally gave 
their name to the whole people and to the country, 
which cameto be called Angle-land or Engle-land, and 
thence England. So the people came to be known as 
the Ungle-ish or English People. 

4. Relation of English to Other Languages. — Be- 
cause the English language was brought from Germany 
into England, being then only a dialect of the German, 
it is still very much like the languages of Germany. 
For this reason it is said to be a Germanic or Teutonic 
language. All the Germanic languages, together with 
most of the others spoken in Europe — as, for example, 
the French, the Spanish, the Italian, the Swedish, the 
Russian — and part of those spoken in Asia, as the 
languages of India and Persia, form a great body of lan- 
guages, resembling one another, and so called a "family." 
The names most often applied to this family of lan- 
guages are the Indo-European and the Aryan. The 
English language, then, belongs to the Germanic or 
Teutonic group of the Indo-European or Aryan family 
of languages. 

5. The Norman Conquest. — In the eleventh cen- 
tury, the English-speaking people of England were con- 
quered by the Normans, a French-speaking people. As 
the two races intermingled, the language became mixed ; 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 6 

so that a large part of our English comes from Germany 
and another large part from France, to say nothing of 
many words which have come from still other sources. 

The Normans came from France into England under 
the leadership of William, Duke of Normandy, who is 
known in history as William the Conqueror. His vic- 
tory over the English in the famous battle of Hastings, 
fought in 1066, was the beginning of what is known as 
The Norman Conquest. The ancestors of these Nor- 
mans came from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, and 
they are often called the Northmen. 

6. Spread of the English Language. — The English 
conquered and settled other countries besides England ; 
as, for example, the southern part of Scotland, and, much 
later, a large part of Ireland. In time, the English peo- 
ple became great travellers and traders and sent out 
colonies to all parts of the world. The colonists, of 
course, carried their native language with them far out 
of England, wherever they made their new homes. 
Some of these English colonies have now become great 
nations. That in North America especially has grown 
until it is as numerous a people as the English of Eng- 
land. The English language is now used by many more 
people out of England than in it; but it still keeps 
everywhere its old name. 

7. Changes in the Language. — Our English, how- 
ever, is by no means the same language that has always 
gone by that name. The language first brought from 
Northern Germany into England was so different from 
ours that we should not understand it at all if we heard 
it spoken ; and we cannot learn to read it without as 
much study as it takes to learn French or German, The 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

reason is that every living language is all the time 
changing. Some old words go out of use ; other new 
words come into use ; some words change their mean- 
ing ; many change their spelling ; and almost all change 
their pronunciation. Our phrases, too, the ways in 
which we put words together to express our thoughts, 
become by degrees different. Such changes are some- 
times very slow ; but they are all the time going on, 
everywhere. The English language as it may be used 
in centuries to come will doubtless be as different from 
that which we speak and write as our English is from 
that of several centuries ago. 

8. Names by which the Language is Known. — 

Special names have been given to the English language 
as used at different periods. The earliest English that 
we know anything about is the English of the time of 
King Alfred the Great, who lived about one thousand 
years ago. This is commonly called the Anglo-Saxon, 
to distinguish it from that of later times. Other names, 
such as Old English, Early English, and Middle 
English, have been given to the language of times 
between King Alfred's and our own. When, therefore, 
the simple name "English" is used, it is understood to 
mean the language of our time, such as we ourselves 
speak and write. 

9. Dialects of Modern English. — Not only is the 
English language which we speak different from that of 
past centuries, but it is different from that which is 
now spoken by people living in some other parts of 
the world. It is, in some little things, so unlike the 
language spoken in England that travellers may be 
easily recognized as Englishmen or Americans by the 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 5 

way they talk. In almost every region where English 
is spoken, the language shows some peculiarities which 
are not noticed elsewhere. For example, there are the 
peculiarities of the English of Ireland, as we hear them 
from the Irish emigrant; and those of the English of 
Scotland, as we hear them from travellers, or read them 
in the poetry of Burns and the stories of Scott. When 
these peculiarities become so many and so marked that 
the people who use them are not readily understood by 
other English-speaking people, they make what is called 
a Dialect of English. Thus we speak of the " negro 
dialect," when we refer to the English language as 
spoken by the negroes of the Southern United States, 
and the " Yorkshire dialect," when we mean the rough 
English spoken by the natives of Yorkshire, England. 

10. Good English and Bad English. — Wherever 
the English language is spoken, there is a noticeable 
difference between the speech of educated and unedu- 
cated persons ; and a difference, though in a less degree, 
even among those of equal education and culture. We 
speak of this as the difference between u good English" 
and "bad English." By "good English" we mean such 
as is used by the most careful writers and speakers, the 
people of best education ; and " bad English " is simply 
such as is not approved and accepted by them. It 
is, therefore, the usage of educated people, and not 
any book of rules, that makes the standard of good 
English. 

11. Language and Grammar. — Every one who 
speaks any language "naturally," as we say, learns it 
from the people around him, as he is growing up. If 
he associates only with people who use the language 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

correctly, he unconsciously copies their good habits of 
speech, without knowing any reason for speaking as he 
does. On the other hand, if he associates with people 
who are careless or ignorant about correct usage, he 
naturally learns to talk as they do, without any idea of 
the mistakes he is making. Indeed, there are very few 
persons who do not acquire in early youth some bad 
habits of speech, which must be corrected afterwards. 
It is partly to help in this process of correcting errors 
in speech, that the approved usages of language are col- 
lected, arranged, and set forth in a book which is called 
a Grammar. It must be understood that grammar 
does not make laws for language. It merely states the 
facts in regard to the right use of language, and in an 
orderly way, so that they can be easily referred to and 
learned. 

12. English Grammar. — English Grammar may be 
defined as a description of those usages of the English 
language which are now approved by the best writers 
and speakers. 

13. Usefulness of the Study of Grammar* — In 
order to use the English language correctly, it is not 
necessary to study English grammar. Indeed, many 
people learn to use good English simply by noticing 
and imitating the usage of good writers and speakers, 
without having any knowledge of grammar as a science. 
It may be asked, " Of what use, then, is the study ? 
What good will it do us?" The study of grammar is 
useful to us because it helps and hastens the process of 
learning to use good English, since it sets before us the 
rules of good usage, with illustrations and exercises. It 
is especially useful to those who have been unfortunate 



^LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 7 

enough to learn at first a bad kind of English, by hear- 
ing it from the people around them. 

The value of the study appears more clearly the 
farther we advance in language-learning. Most of us 
wish to learn other languages than our own. We can 
do this more easily and accurately, if we understand 
how our own language is made and used; for then we 
can compare these other languages with it, and can 
more readily understand and remember wherein they 
differ from the English. Again, we may wish to study 
some of the older forms of English, and compare them 
with the language as now used. If we have some 
knowledge of modern English grammar, we shall be 
the better able to appreciate the fact that during all 
these centuries the English language has not only 
changed, but has developed and improved. 

Besides, we may not be content with merely using 
language ; w r e may wish to know something of what 
language is, and what it is worth to us. The history 
of language has a great deal to tell us about the history 
of man, and of what he has done in the world. 

For all these purposes, we need to have that sort ot 
knowledge of language to which the study of gram mat 
is the first step, and to which a study of the grammar 
of our own language is the easiest and surest step. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. About how many languages are spoken in the ivorld ? From 
what are they named? What is the English language? 

2. What was the early name of England? What were its 
inhabitants called? What people are descended from them? 
What sort of language did the early inhabitants speak? 

3. When did the English come into England? From what 
place? How did they treat the inhabitants? Name the principal 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

tribes of the English. Explain the meaning of "Anglo-Saxon." 
Explain the origin of the names " England " and " English." 

4. How was the English language at first related to the Ger- 
man? Why is the English called a Germanic language? Give 
another name for the group of languages related to the English. 
Give two names for the " family " to which the English language 
belongs. What do these names mean ? Name some other European 
languages belonging to the same family with the English. What 
Asiatic languages belong to this family? Why is it called a 
"family"? 

5. Where was the original home of the Normans ? By what 
other name are they known ? From what country did they come 
into England ? Who was their leader ? Where and what is Nor- 
mandy? What is meant by "The Norman Conquest"? What 
language was spoken by the Normans who came into England? 
What two kinds of words chiefly made up the English language 
after the Norman Conquest ? 

6. Name some countries which the English conquered. What 
are the largest English colonies? Explain how the English lan- 
guage has spread. 

7. Compare our English with that brought from Germany. 
Mention some of the ways in which, a language gradually changes. 
Is the English language now undergoing changes ? 

8. Wliat name is given to the English language of King Alfred's 
time ? What names are given to the English of periods between 
Alfred's and our own? What is understood by the simple name 
" English " when applied to the language? 

9. How does the English spoken in America compare with that 
spoken in England? Can you mention any particular points of 
difference? Mention some places where a very different sort of 
English is spoken from that which we use. What is a dialect? 

10. What is meant by " good English " ? What is " bad Eng- 
lish " ? What is the standard of good English ? 

11. How is any language naturally learned? How does it 
happen that some children learn to speak correctly and others 
incorrectly? What is the chief purpose of a grammar? What, in 
general, does the book contain ? Is grammar a science ? How is 
grammar related to language ? 

12. Define English Grammar. 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 9 

13. In what respect is the study of grammar unnecessary ? Why, 
and to whom, is it chiefly useful ? How does a knowledge of English 
grammar help us to use good English? How does it help us to 
learn foreign languages? How is it useful in studying old forms 
of English ? What are some of the things which we may learn by 
studying the history of language? 



10 THE SENTENCE. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE SENTENCE: THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

14. Classification of Words. — The English language, 
like every other, is made up of words. Each word has 
its own part to take in the work of expressing our 
thoughts ; its own meanings, and its own ways of being 
used with other words. 

15. Use of "Words in Sentences. — For example, 
sun and snow are the names of objects ; but shines and 
melts are of a different kind. They are words which we 
put with the names of objects, in order to tell something 
about the objects themselves. Such statements as Sun 
shines, snow melts, are called Declarations or Asser- 
tions, because they declare or assert some fact. When 
they stand by themselves, as the complete expression of 
a thought, they are also called Sentences. 

If we make longer sentences, such as 

The golden sun shines brightly, 
The feathery snow melts quickly, 

we notice that the word the is not used like the words 
of which we ha^e already spoken. It does not name 
anything or declare anything. It must, therefore, belong 
to some other class of words. Ciolden and feathery are 
used to describe the sun and the snow, and so must 
belong to one and the same class; and brightly and 
quickly belong to still another class, because they ex- 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 11 

press the manner of shining and melting. It is plain, 
then, that words may be classified according to their use 
in sentences. 

NAMES AND DEFINITIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

16. Parts of Speech. — The classes into which 
words are divided, according to their uses, are called 
the Parts of Speech. They will be fully described 
in later chapters ; but for convenience they are here 
briefly defined. 

1 7. A Noun is the name of anything. Noun means 
simply 4 name.'' 

18. It may be, for example, 

(a) The name of a person or a place ; as, Charles, 

Queen Victoria, China. 
(6) The name of some object or some quality that we 

can see or hear or taste or smell or feel; as, 

stars, beauty ; music, melody ; fruit, sourness ; 

'perfume, odor ; heat, pain, smoothness, 
(c) The name of some quality or idea that we merely 

think of; as, gentleness, faith, perseverance, reason, 

happiness. 

Exercise 1. 

NOUNS. 

Oral. Point out the nouns and tell what they name. 

Written. Copy the sentences and draw a line under each noun. 

1. October contains five Saturdays this year. 2. Roses delight 
us with their color and fragrance. 3. The music of the organ 
sounds like the roar of thunder. 4. In Mammoth Cave are found 
fishes that have no eyes. 5. The cold of winter and the heat of 



12 THE SENTENCE. 

summer are alike to him. 6. Electricity is now much used instead 
of steam. 7. Charles Dickens was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
8. Courage is admirable, but patience is powerful. 9. A cry of 
pain and terror broke the stillness of the night. 10. Simplicity in 
dress and manners indicates refinement. 

19. A Pronoun is a word which stands for a noun. 

In speaking and writing we should find it very awk- 
ward to be continually repeating the names of persons 
and things ; so we make use of words which are called 
Pronouns, because they take the place of nouns. Pro- 
noun means ''for a noun.'' 

20. A Pronoun may take the place of 

(a) The name of the person who is speaking or writing, 
and also of others who are associated with him ; 
as, I, my, me, we, us, our. 

(6) The name of the person or persons addressed : you, 
ye, thou, thee. 

(c) The name of the person or thing that has just been 

mentioned ; as, he, his, him, she, her, it, it's ; or, if 
more than one, they, their, them. 

(d) The name of an object that is pointed out; as, this, 

that; or, if more than one, these, those. 

(e) The names of objects selected from a group or class ; 

as, each, loth, all, some. 
(/) A name that is not known to the speaker, but is 
inquired for; as, who? which? what? 

Exercise 2. 

PRONOUNS. 

Oral. Point out the pronouns and mention the nouns for which 
they stand. 

Written. Copy the sentences, drawing a line under each pronoun 
and writing after each, in brackets, the noun to which it refers. Thus: 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 13 

Kate writes that she [Kate] will spend the winter in Italy if its 
[Italy's] climate agrees with her [Kate]. 

1. John's parents have received a letter from him. 2. It is long 
and interesting, and contains much information about Russia and its 
people. 3. Some of their customs are peculiar, but they are not as 
odd as those of the Chinese. 4. This is his first visit to the coun- 
try. 5. Who went with him? 6. We do not know, but I suppose 
that his uncle went. 7. What was their reason for going ? 8. You 
must ask them. 9. Their journey will be long and expensive. 
10. That will not trouble them ; for each has plenty of money, and 
both are young and strong. 

21. A Verb is a word that declares or asserts some- 
thing about a person or a thing. Verb is simply the 
Latin name for 4 word.'' 

22. It may be 

(a) A single word ; as, grow, sees, do, write. 
(6) A phrase ; that is, a combination of several words, 
used as a verb. 
Such expressions are called Verb-phrases. 

Ex. Is growing, has been seen, will do, had written. 

Exercise 3. 

VERBS. 

Oral. Point out the verbs and the verb-phrases. 
Written. Draw one line under the simple verbs and two under 
the verb-phrases. 

1. Swallows sometimes build nests in chimneys. 2. Franklin 
was born in Boston and lived for many years in Philadelphia. 
3. Dates grow on palm-trees. 4. Children are playing in the 
street. 5. The walls were covered with paintings and sculptures. 
6. Caesar conquered many tribes. 7. The robins have flown to 
their winter homes. 8. You might have written your essay. 
9. They had been studying history. 10. John Quincy Adams 
was inaugurated March 4, 1825. 



14 THE SENTENCE. 

23. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit 
the meaning of a noun. The name signifies something 
4 added ' to the noun by way of description. 

24. It may be, for example, 

(a) A word expressing some quality ; as, good, sweet, 
stern, delicate. 

(5) A word telling how many ; as, five, few, many, sev- 
eral, all. 

(c) A word pointing out which one or ones; as, this, 
these, that, those, yonder. 

25. The Articles. — The adjectives a, an, and the, are 
called the Articles, and are sometimes regarded as 
forming a separate part of speech. 

Exercise 4. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Oral. Point out the adjectives and tell what nouns they qualify. 
Written. Draw one line under the adjective and two under the 
word which it describes or limits. 

1. A dainty basket was filled with ripe fruit. 2. It contained 
golden oranges, ruddy apples, and luscious purple and white grapes. 
3. Many islands have been formed by the patient labor of these 
tiny insects. 4. The Egyptian pyramids are gigantic piles of 
masonry. 5. June is the sixth month of the year. 6. There are 
sixteen chapters in that book. 7. The royal palace is surrounded 
by beautiful and extensive gardens. 8. They contain several small 
lakes and numerous fountains. 9. The many-colored, One-story 
houses are ranged in narrow streets, which cross each other at right 
angles. 10. Shy fishes lurk in the shady nooks of that peaceful 
stream. 11. A comfortable old age is the reward of a well-spent 
youth. 

26. An Adverb is a word used to modify or limit 
the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or sometimes of 
another adverb. Adverb means ' added to a verb' 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 15 

27. It may tell 

(a) How ; as, rapidly, fiercely, beautifully, truly. 

(6) When; as, noiv, then, lately, formerly, sometimes, never. 

(c) Where ; as, here, there, everyivhere, yonder, thither. 

(d) How much ; as, so, very, too, more, less, enough, quite. 

Exercise 5. 

ADVERBS. 

Oral. Point out the adverbs and tell ivhat they modify. 

Written. Draw one line under the adverb and two lines under the 
word which it modifies. If necessary, connect the adverb and the word 
which it modifies by drawing a curved line from one to the other ; thus, 
We seldom think how precious are these little moments. 

1. The wind whistles shrilly through the pines. 2. People often 
make mistakes, and sometimes suffer for them. 3. The people of 
China are wonderfully industrious. 4. Salt easily dissolves in 
water. 5. Dead leaves are strewn everywhere, but here and there 
a flower may yet be seen. 6. You are not strong enough to work 
so hard. 7. Flocks of sea-gulls fly fearlessly about the ship, or 
float gracefully upon the water. 8. He is an extremely careful 
driver. 9. She sings very sweetly. 10. We go there very often 
now, and we always have a remarkably pleasant time. 

28. A Preposition is a word that joins a noun or 
pronoun to some other word, showing the relation be- 
tween them. The word preposition means '-placed, 
before.'' 

29. The relation may be that of 
(a) Possession ; as, of. 

Ex. The palace of the king [= the king's palace] . 

(6) Nearness ; as, by, beside, with. 

(c) Time ; as, until, till, before, after. 

(d) Place ; as, above, beloiv, behind, in, into, from ; and 

so on, with various other relations. 



16 the sentence. 

Exercise 6. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Oral. Point out the prepositions and tell what words they join. 

Written. Draw one line under the preposition and two under the 
words between which it shows a relation. If necessary, use a curved 
line, as in Exercise 5. 

1. The picture hangs over the mantel. 2. After dinner we 
will walk. 3. He hid behind the door. 4. We could not see the 
face of the stranger. 5. There is good fishing in the stream 
among the rocks. 6. We fished below the bridge. 7. Amber is 
brought from the shores of Germany. 8. The water rushes over 
a precipice into the depths of the gorge. 9. The fisherman's 
widow lives in a cottage by the sea. 10. Our friend will be with 
us before night. 

30. A Conjunction is a word used to join words, 
phrases [see 43], or sentences. The word means 'join- 
ing together.' 

Ex. He spoke of the grass and flowers and trees ; [Words.] 
Of the singing birds and the humming bees. [Phrases.] 

Life is a short day, but it is a working day. [Sentences.] 

31. The conjunctions have various meanings, such as, 

(# ) Cause or reason ; as, for, because, therefore. 

(5) Condition ; as, if. 

(c) Time ; as, while, when. 

(c?) Comparison ; as, than. 

(e) Addition ; as, and. 

Exercise 7. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Oral. Point out the conjunctions and tell what they connect. 
Written. Draw one line under the conjunction and two under 
the expressions which it joins. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 17 

1. The sun and moon and stars are all wonderful. 2. Xo time 
was to be wasted ; for the tide was rising. 3. These animals have 
come from the deep woods, and the wild mountains, and the desert 
sands, and the polar snows. 4. I would write a letter, if I had good 
paper. 5. 1 have neither pen nor ink nor paper. 6. She suffered more 
than words can tell. 7. Men stared in terror while the flames rose 
higher. 8. The chimes ring at sunrise and at sunset. 9. Some 
railroads go under the rivers and over the mountains. 10. The 
road is rough but shady. 

32. An Interjection is an exclamation used to ex- 
press a feeling, as of pain, joy, fear, surprise, contempt, 
sadness, disgust, etc. The word means "thrown into the 
midst? 

Ex. Oh ! ah ! hurrah ! alas ! bah ! pooh ! pshaw ! 

33. Strictly speaking, the interjections are not "parts 
of speech " at all ; because they are not combined with 
other words to make sentences, but are ' thrown into the 
midst'' of other words in the sentence, without much 
connection with them. For convenience, however, they 
are commonly included among the parts of speech. 

Exercise 8. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

Oral. Point out the interjections and tell what feeling they express. 
Written. Underline the interjections. 

1. Oh ! I have cut my ringer. 2. Oh ! what fun that will be ! 
3. Oh ! how you frightened me ! 4. Alas ! how hard it is to be 
poor ! 5. Bah ! what a silly performance ! 6. Hurrah ! vacation 
is here at last ! 7. Pooh ! anybody can do as well as that. 8. Ah ! 
what a wonderful thought ! 9. Ugh ! how cold it is ! 10. Ha ! 
I've caught you now ! 

34. Summary of the Parts of Speech. — The parts 
of speech may be classified as follows : — 



18 THE SENTENCE. 

I. The three main parts of speech, the Noun, the Pno 
noun, and the Verb, which may form sentences with- 
out the help of the other parts. 

II. The two qualifiers, the Adjective and the Adverb, 
always put with some other word, which they describe 
or limit. 

III. The two connectives, the Preposition and the 
Conjunction, which join one word or one part of a 
sentence to another. 

IV. The Interjection, which is used independently 
of other words. 

35. A Word not always the Same Part of 
Speech. — Every word in our language may be included 
in one or another of these eight classes called parts of 
speech ; but we must not suppose that a particular word 
must always belong to a certain class. The sense in 
which a word is used in a sentence determines what part 
of speech it is in that instance ; and the same word some- 
times has different uses in different sentences, or even 
in the same sentence. It follows, then, that a word may 
belong to two or more of these classes, according to its 
use and meaning. 

Ex. That [adjective] bird is a thrush. 

The bird that [pronoun] is singing is an oriole. 
I thought that [conjunction] it was a robin 
Here are four that's [noun] of different kinds. 

THE SENTENCE. 

36. The name " part of speech," given to a word, 
shows that there is something incomplete about it ; that 
it is not a whole, but must be joined with other "parts," 
in order to make a whole, or in order to be speech. The 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 19 

whole which these parts make up is the Sentence. A 
Sentence may be defined as the expression of a thought. 

37. Main Parts of a Sentence. — Every assertion 
or sentence must have at least two parts — one naming 
the object about whigh we say something, and the other 
telling what we wish to say about that object. The 
first is called the Subject ; the second, the Predicate. 

38. Order of Parts. — The subject, whether it is 
one word or made up of several words, is naturally 
placed at the beginning of the sentence and followed 
by the predicate ; but often, and especially in poetry, 
the predicate comes first. 

Ex. On their faces gleamed the fire-light. The usual order of 
words would be, The fire-light gleamed on their faces. 

39. Bare Subject and Predicate. — If the subject 
or the predicate is a single word, it is called a Bare or 
Unmodified subject or predicate. 

Exercise 9. 

BARE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

Oral. Point out the subject and the predicate and tell what part of 
speech each word. is. 

Written. Draw one line under the subject and two under the 
predicate. 

1. Fire burns. 2. Winds blow. 3. Gold glitters. 4. Wheat 
ripens. 5. Stars twinkle. 6. She laughed. 7. Smoke rises. 
8. We look. 9. Rain falls. 10. I read. 

Write five more sentences of this kind. 

40. The Independent Parts of Speech. — From the 
preceding exercise it appears that the bare predicate of 
a sentence is always a verb, and the bare subject either 



20 THE SENTENCE. 

a noun or a pronoun ; though, as we shall see later, other 
parts of speech may sometimes be used in the sense of 
nouns, and so form the subject of a sentence. Since the 
noun or the pronoun together with the verb may form 
sentences without the help of other words, they are 
called the Main or Independent Parts of Speech. 

41. Complete Subject and Predicate. — Either or 
both parts of the sentence may contain several words, 
and we then speak of the Complete Subject or 
Predicate. 

Ex. That handsome house on the hill | was originally built for a 
chapel. 

42. A Clause. — A Clause is an expression contain- 
ing both subject and predicate, but not making a com- 
plete sentence. 

Ex. If you | go. When it | rains. What you | have written. 

43. A Phrase. — A Phrase is an expression contain- 
ing two or more words, but not having both subject and 
predicate. 

Ex. At all events. By this time. Having no excuse. 

Exercise 10. 

PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND SENTENCES. 

Write the phrases, clauses, and sentences in three columns under the 
proper headings. 

1. By no means. 2. Unless you promise. 3. Which ex- 
ploded. 4. Dynamite exploded. 5. Very careless workmen. 
6. The ship sank. 7. Lost at sea. 8. Making no reply. 9. If 
it should storm. 10. Where the men stood. 

Write jive more of each kind. 

44. Complement of the Verb, — Some verbs are 
very rarely used alone as predicates, but need to have 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 21 

other words added to them, in order to make complete 
assertions. Words which are added to a verb in this 
way are called Complements of the verb. Complement 
means ' completing part.'' The complement is almost 
always either a noun or an adjective. Some of the 
verbs which need complements are be, seem, look, smell, 
sound, taste, feel. 

Ex. He is honest. They are musicians. Marble feels smooth. 

45. Predicate Nouns. — If the complement of such 
a verb is a noun, it is commonly called a Predicate 
Noun, because it helps the verb to predicate or assert 
something about the subject of the sentence. 

Ex. Regulus was a soldier. She is a heroine. 

46. Predicate Adjectives. — If the complement of 
a verb is an adjective, it is called a Predicate Adjec- 
tive, because it not only qualifies or describes the noun 
or pronoun which is used as the subject, but it also helps 
the verb to make an assertion about the subject. 

Ex. This apple tastes sour. The adjective sour describes apple, 
and at the same time makes a part of the assertion, tastes sour. 

Exercise 11. 

PREDICATE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 

Oral. Point out the subject, the predicate, and the complement. 

Written. Mark bare subject and predicate as in Exercise 9. 
Draw a wavy line under the complement, and write below it a letter to 
show whether it is a noun or an adjective; thus, He has been a 
sailor. 

n 

1. You are industrious. 2. The moonlight looks silvery. 
3. Milton was a poet. 4. These violets smell sweet. 5. He 
looks happy. 6. The king was a tyrant. 7. The problem 



22 THE SENTENCE. 

seems easy. 8. Her china is old-fashioned. 9. They are Amer- 
icans. 10. We have been idle. 

Write Jive other sentences, 

47. Object of a Transitive Verb. — In the sen- 
tences ' John drew,' ' The farmer keeps,' and 4 They saw,' 
the predicate seems unfinished, and we naturally ask, 

What did John draw? What does the farmer keep? 
What or whom did they see ? 

If we say, ' John drew a picture,' ' The farmer keeps 
turkeys,' 4 They saw the President,' or ' They saw him,' 
we complete the meaning of the verb. The words pic- 
ture, turkeys, President, and him must therefore be 
another kind of Complement. Such a complement is 
called the Object of the verb, and the verb which 
requires an object to complete its meaning is called a 
Transitive Verb. Transitive means ' going over,' and 
the name implies that the action expressed by the verb 
goes over from the subject to the object. 

Exercise 12. 

OBJECT ADDED TO TRANSITIVE VERB. 

Oral. Point out subject, predicate, and object. 
Written. Mark subject, predicate, and complement, as in Exer- 
cise 10. 

1. He published a history. 2. She lighted the lantern. 
3. The Romans built ships. 4. The rain refreshes the grass and 
flowers. 5. Mr. Rogers owns a yacht. 6. The English conquered 
the French. 7. We visited the museum. 8. A servant has 
brought the message. 9. They are attending a lecture. 10. Bees 
collect honey. 

48. Modifiers of Subject and Predicate. — Words 
and phrases which are added to the bare subject and 
predicate are, in general, called Modifiers, because 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 2$ 

they modify, that is, 'change somewhat' the meaning of 
the subject and predicate, and so of the sentence itself. 
The Complete Subject therefore consists of the bare 
subject together with its modifiers ; the Complete 
Predicate, of the bare predicate together with its 
complement or modifiers. 

Exercise 13. 

ADJECTIVES ADDED TO THE SUBJECT. 

Oral. Point out bare subject and predicate, the complement, if 
there is one, the complete subject, and the adjective modifiers. 

Written. Mark as before the bare subject and predicate, and the 
complement, and draw three lines under the adjectives. In this and 
the remaining exercises in this chapter, draw a vertical line to separate 
the complete subject from the complete predicate ; thus, The old white 
horse | is dead. ===== 

a 

1. The yellow gold glitters. 2. This white rose is beautiful. 

• 

3. These seven men were prisoners. 4. Smooth white paper is 
used. 5. A little brown hand grasps the sword. 6. Dark heavy- 
clouds cover the sky. 7. A large black dog carried her basket. 
8. A golden throne was erected. 9. * The old red house was 
deserted. 10. All good true men are noblemen. 

49. Prepositional Phrases. — We have learned 
[Art. 28] that a preposition is a word which is "placed 
before" a noun or a pronoun so as to show a certain 
relation between that noun and pronoun and some other 
word in the sentence. The noun or pronoun before 
which it is placed is called the Object of the prepo- 
sition. The preposition together with its object forms a 
Prepositional Phrase, which may be used like an adjec- 
tive or an adverb to modify other words in the sen- 
tence. 



24 THE SENTENCE. 

Ex. A crown of gold was presented. The prepositional phrase 
is used like an adjective describing crown. A crown of gold means 
the same as a golden crown. 

She walks with grace means the same as She walks gracefully. 
With grace is a prepositional phrase, used like an adverb, telling how 
she walks. 

Exercise 14. 

PREPOSITIONAL, PHRASES ADDED TO SUBJECT OR 
PREDICATE. 

Oral. Point out the prepositional phrase and tell what it modifies. 

Written. Inclose the prepositional phrases in curves, marking the 
other parts of the sentence as in preceding exercise; thus, The 
bright stars | t winkle (in the sky). z==z 

1. A hot tire of coals burns in the grate. 2. A clock of brass 
ticked on the mantel. 3. The air is thick with mist. 4. The 
red leaves of the maple fall from the tree to the ground. 5. Ice 
melts in the heat of the sun. 6. The black smoke rises in the air 
from the tall chimney. 7. We go to school in the morning. 

8. The cave among the rocks was the home of a family of foxes. 

9. The brook flows under the bridge, between the meadows, and 
through the woods. 10. The death of Lincoln caused deep sorrow 
throughout the country. 

Exercise 15. 

ADVERBS ADDED TO THE PREDICATE. 

Oral. Point out the adverbs and explain their use. 
Written. Inclose the adverbs in brackets, marking other parts as 
before; thus, Cold winds | blow [keenly.] 



1. The hungry dog barked loudly. 2. The moon smiles calmly 
down upon the earth. 3. The time passed very rapidly. 4. The 
next day was uncomfortably warm. 5. He gives advice and money 
freely. 6. The city was suddenly buried beneath showers of ashes. 
7. The guide bravely led the way. 8. She is naturally impatient. 
9. Such things often happen here. 10. I have finished the letter 
now. 



the parts of speech. 25 

Exercise 16. 

CONJUNCTIONS USED TO CONNECT SENTENCES (Clauses). 

Oral. Point out the conjunctions and explain their use. 
Written. Place one sentence under the other with the conjunction 
between; thus, They | laughed [loudly] 

but 
we | were silent. 
a 
1. The curling blue smoke rises in the air because it is light. 
2. You will surely succeed if you try. 3. We must make hay 
while the sun shines. 4. The children called, but no voice replied. 
5. The sun rose and sank, and the battle still raged. 6. Blessed 
are the meek; for they shall inherit the earth. 7. The earth 
revolves, yet we do not feel its motion. 8. They listened with 
attention while I spoke to them. 9. The children ran to the play- 
ground when the bell rang. 10. Many years have passed since 
the Pilgrims landed on Plymouth Rock. 

SENTENCE-MAKING. 

50. We have learned the classes of words and some 
of the ways in which the various parts of speech may 
be used in sentences. In order to test our knowledge, 
we shall find it good practice to choose words and 
phrases and put them together in an orderly way so as 
to make sentences. 

Exercise 17. 

SENTENCE-MAKING. 

1. Write a list of five nouns. Ex. Flowers. 

2. Use each as the subject of a verb. Ex. Flowers bloom. 

3. Qualify each noun by an adjective. Ex. Beautiful flowers bloom. 

4. Modify each verb by an adverb. Ex. Beautiful flowers 
bloom here. 

5. Modify subject and predicate by prepositional phrases. 
Ex. Beautiful flowers of springtime bloom here in the ivoods. 

6. Use conjunctions in subject and predicate. Ex. Bright and 
beautiful flowers of springtime bloom here in the woods and fields. 



26 THE SEHTEtfCE. 

Exercise 18. 

SENTENCE-MAKING. 

Write sentences containing the following words: — 

1. Fly, used as a noun and as a verb. 

2. Clear, used as a verb and as an adjective. 

3. Light, used as a nown, as a verb, and as an adjective. 

4. £cn7, used as a noun and as a rer&. 

5. Storm, used as a noun, as a ver&, and as an adjective. 

Exercise 19. 

SENTENCE-MAKING. 

1. Write five nouns as the subjects of transitive verbs. 
Ex. Sexton rang. 

2. Complete the verb by adding an object limited by the adjec- 
tive the. Ex. Sexton rang the bell. 

3. Modify the subject by two adjectives. Ex. The old sexton 
rang the bell. 

4. Modify the subject by a prepositional phrase. Ex. The old 
sexton of the church rang the bell. 

5. Modify the verb by an adverb. Ex. The old sexton of the 
church rang the bell lustily. 

6. Modify the verb by a prepositional phrase. Ex. The old 
sexton of the church rang the bell lustily at sunrise. 

KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

51. Since the sentence is the expression of a thought, 
it may be in the form of an assertion, a question, or 
a command. There are, therefore, three varieties of 
simple sentences : — 

52. 1. The Assertive or Declarative Sentence, which 
states a fact or an opinion. 

Ex. Air is lighter than water. Honest work is no disgrace. 



THE PARTS Otf SPEECH. 27 

53. 2. The Interrogative Sentence, which asks a 
question. 

Ex. What are the wild waves saying ? 

54. 3. The Imperative Sentence, which expresses a 
request or a command. 

Ex. Give me a glass of water. March on to the attack. 

55. Form of the Interrogative Sentence. — The 

form of the Interrogative sentence is different from 
that of the Assertive sentence, the subject noun or pro- 
noun being usually placed after the verb. Sometimes 
the sentence begins with some question-asking word, 
such as how, what, which, or why. Sometimes there is 
nothing to distinguish it from an Assertive sentence 
except the tone of voice, in speaking, or the interroga- 
tion mark at the end, in writing. 

Ex. You are sure about that f 

The sentence, printed in this way, is understood to mean, Are 
you sure about that ? 

56. Subject of the Imperative Sentence. — The 

Imperative sentence does not often have a subject 
expressed. The pronoun you may commonly be sup- 
plied as the subject of the verb. 

57. Exclamatory Sentences. — Sentences belonging 
to any of these classes may be called Exclamatory 
Sentences if they express surprise, delight, pain, dis- 
gust, or other strong feeling. Such a sentence should 
be followed by an exclamation point. 

Ex. (a) How beautiful is night! The Assertive sentence, 
* Night is beautiful/ is here so changed in form as to express 
wonder and admiration. 

(b) Who would have thought it ! This is, in form, an Interroga- 
tive sentence, but the speaker does not expect a reply. He means 



28 THE SENTENCE. 

to say that nobody would have thought it. The sentence is Ex- 
clamatory, expressing surprise. 

(c) 0, bury me not in the deep, deep sea ! The Imperative sen- 
tence is here made Exclamatory, expressing dread and entreaty. 

Exercise 20. 

KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

To which of the three classes does the sentence belong? 
Is it Exclamatory ? If so, what feeling does it express? 

1. Beautiful Evelyn Hope is dead ! 

2. Queen Elizabeth was the last of the Tudor sovereigns. 

3. Where is the true man's fatherland ? 

4. How welcome is the rain ! 

5. On the wide lawn the snow lay deep. 

6. Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud V 

7. Delightful are the long evenings of winter. 

8. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State ! 

9. O mighty Caesar, dost thou lie so low ? 
10. Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky ! 

Exercise 21. 

KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

1. Write an Assertive sentence about glass. 

2. Write an Interrogative sentence about Mexico. 

3. Write an Imperative sentence addressed to a servant. 

4. Write an Imperative sentence expressing a polite request. 

5. Write an Assertive sentence about light. 

6. Change this assertion to the form of a question. 

7. Write an Assertive sentence, and then change it to the 
Exclamatory form. 

8. Write an Interrogative sentence that shall be also Ex- 
clamatory. 

9. Write an Imperative and Exclamatory sentence. 

10. Write an Interrogative sentence, and then change it to the 
form of an assertion. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 29 



Exercises on Chapter II. 

In each sentence, point out the bare subject and predicate with their 
several modifiers. Tell what part of speech each word is. Read the 
complete subject and predicate of each sentence, and tell what kind of 
sentence it is. 

1. Still sits the schoolhouse by the road. 

2. Full knee-deep lies the winter snow. 

3. Keep, oh keep that young heart true ! 

4. Blessed are the peacemakers. 

5. By the yellow Tiber was tumult and affright. 

6. Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh. 

7. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 

8. Ay, tear her tattered ensign dowm ! 

9. Who would not be a Roman ? 

10. We silently gazed on the face of the dead, 
And w r e bitterly thought of the morrow. 

11. The beautiful fern of the summer lies in rusty patches on 
the open hillside, though within the woods it is still fresh and 
green . 

12. The night was stormy ; yet the clang 
Of hammers through the darkness rang. 

13. On the cross beam, under the Old South bell, 
The nest of a pigeon is builded well. 

14. Its birches whisper to the wind, 

The swallow dips her wings 
In the cool spray, and on its banks 
The gray song-sparrow sings. 

15. The sun stepped down from his golden throne 

And lay in the silent sea, 
And the Lily had folded her satin leaves, 

For a sleepy thing was she : 
What is the Lily dreaming of? 

Why crisp the waters blue ? 
See, see, she is lifting her varnished lid! 

Her white leaves are glistening through. 



30 NOUNS. 



CHAPTER III. 

NOUNS. 

Note. — In this and in later chapters, some exercises are given without 
specific directions for writing. If it is desired to have the class write the 
exercises, the teacher should give clear and definite directions when the 
lesson is assigned. 

58. A Noun is simply a name. Anything which we 
can put before our minds in such a way as to say some- 
thing about it must be called by a name, and that name 

is a Noun. 

59. It may be 

(a) The name of something which we perceive by our 
senses. 
Ex. ball, tree, thunder, odor, flavor. 

(5) The name of a part of an object. 
Ex. head, top, side, surface, end. 

(<?) The name of the material of which an object is made. 
Ex. flesh, silk, wood, silver, rubber. 

(d) The name of a thing which we only think of, but 

do not see, or hear, or feel. 
Ex. mind, soul, God, heaven. 

(e) The name of a quality or condition of an object. 
Ex. truth, beauty, space, absence, color, weight. 

(/) The name of an action. 

Ex. thinking, running, to walk, to read. 

($r) The name of an animal, a person, or a place. 
3Bx. Fido, Alice, John Quincy Adams ? Jerusalem, Australia^ 



NOUNS. 31 

60. Test of a Noun. — There are so many nouns, 
and they are so different in kind, that we sometimes 
need to try a word in order to be sure whether it is 
really the name of something. For example, if we wish 
to determine whether skating is a noun, we must see if 
it has any of the principal uses of a noun : — 

1. If it is used as the subject of a sentence. 
Ex. Skating is good exercise. 

2. If it is the object of a verb. 
Ex. I like skating. 

3. If it is the object of a preposition. 
Ex. Are you fond of skating ? 

4. If it is qualified by an adjective. 
Ex. There is good skating on the lake. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

61. Two Great Classes of Nouns. — A Noun is gen- 
erally the. name given to each member of a whole class 
of similar things, as man, dog, city, country, day, month, 
planet; but in some classes the individuals are impor- 
tant enough to have each a separate name to distinguish 
it from others of the same class ; as, for example, Napo- 
leon, Rover, Paris, China, Tuesday, September, Jupiter. 
All nouns may, therefore, be said to be either class- 
names Or INDIVIDUAL NAMES. 

62. Proper Nouns. — Names which belong to indi- 
viduals of a class are called Proper Nouns. The word 
proper comes from a Latin word meaning c one's oivn? 
Proper nouns should begin with capitals, 



32 NOUNS. 

63. Common Nouns. — All other names may be 
called Common Nouns, because they are class-names, 
that is, names owned in common by a number of things 
of the same kind. 

Exercise 22. 

PROPER NOUNS AND COMMON NOUNS. 

Oral. Which of these nouns are class-names f Which are individ- 
ual names ? 

Written. Draw one line under each Common noun and two under 
each Proper noun. 

1. Book. 2. Elm. 3. Begonia. 4. Fern. 5. Dictionary. 
6. Harry. 7. Christmas. 8. Star. 9. Bird. 10. Mississippi. 
11. Cloud. 12. Italy. 13. Metal. 14. December. 15. Flower. 
16. Niagara. 17. Saturn. 18. Paper. 19. Sunday. 20. Picture. 

64. Collective Nouns. — Some common nouns sig- 
nify a collection of single things. These are called Col- 
lective Nouns. 

Ex. team, gang, crowd, tribe, army, nation, family, swarm, flock, 
herd, class, committee, fleet, suite, group. 

ExERcrsE 23. 

COIXECTIVE NOUNS. 

Write sentences containing the preceding examples of Collective 
Nouns, so constructing the sentences as to show of what kind of objects 
each collection is composed. 

Ex. John drives a team of horses. 

65. Abstract Nouns. — Some common nouns are the 
names of qualities, conditions, and relations of objects. 
They are called Abstract Nouns, because we abstract 
('draw off, separate') the qualities, conditions, etc., from 
the objects to which they belong, and think of them as 
if they had a separate existence. 

Ex. place, brightness, nearness, distance, height, number, truth. 



NOUNS. 33 

66. Verbal Nouns. — The names of actions, such as 
dancing, striking, to run, to skate, are often called Ver- 
bal Nouns. We shall learn more about them in the 
chapter on Verbs. 

Exercise 24. 

ABSTRACT AND VERBAL NOUNS. 

Oral. Point out and describe the Abstract and the Verbal nouns. 
Write a list of the names of qualities. 
Write a list of the names of conditions. 
Write a list of the names of actions. 

Swiftness, grace, despair, courage, sweetness, creeping, fidelity, 
color, magnificence, slumber, fluency, growth, poverty, rest, pride, 
romping, heat, size, exhaustion, studying, sound, to read, rejoicing, 
stupor, hilarity. 

67. Gender Nouns. — Some nouns, both common 
and proper, are the names of living beings and imply a 
difference in sex. Those that denote males are called 
Masculine Nouns, or nouns of the masculine gender. 

Ex. man, son, king, uncle, hero, Francis. 

Those that denote females are called Feminine 
Nouns, or nouns of the feminine gender. 

Ex. woman, daughter, queen, aunt, heroine, Frances. 

68. Neuter Nouns. — Nouns which do not belong to 
either of these classes are sometimes called Neuter 
Nouns (' neither gender '). 

They may be divided into two groups : — 

(a) Those which convey no idea of sex. 
Ex. sun, day, tree, stone, hair, color. 

(6) Those which may be either male or female. 
Ex. child, dog, chicken, fish, mosquito. 



34 



NOUNS. 



69. Feminine Nouns ending in ess. — Many femi- 
nine nouns are similar in form to the corresponding 
masculine nouns, but have the ending ess. Some nouns 
denoting occupations, such as poet, author, and waiter, 
are often applied to females, instead of the regular fem- 
inine nouns, poetess, authoress, and waitress. 



Exercise 25, 



GENDER NOUNS. 



Write the Feminine Nouns which are formed from the following : — 
Giant, emperor, heir, hermit, count, god, host, Jew, lion, tiger, 
priest, prince, prophet, governor, shepherd, tailor, adventurer, actor, 
duke, murderer, master, traitor, sorcerer, negro, votary. 

70. Words from Foreign Languages. — Some nouns 
derived from foreign languages have irregular ways of 
denoting gender. 



Ex. 

Mas. 


Fem. 


Mas. 


Fem. 


executor, 


executrix. 


Monsieur, 


Madame. 


administrator, 

testator, 

hero, 


administratrix. 

testatrix. 

heroine. 


Signor, 

Don, 

Charles, 


Signora. 

Donna. 

Charlotte. 


beau, 

czar, 

sultan, 


belle. 

czarina. 

sultana. 


Augustus, 

Joseph, 

Louis, 


Augusta. 

Josephine 

Louisa. 



71. Gender indicated by a Word placed before 

the Noun. — Some nouns have the gender indicated by 
distinguishing nouns or pronouns placed (usually) be- 
fore them. 



Ex. 



Mas. 


Fem. 


Mas. 


Fem. 


man-servant, 


maid-servant. 


he-goat, 


she-goat. 


man, 

bull-calf, 
pea-cock, 


woman (=-«-)• 

cow-calf, 
pea-hen. 


he-wolf, 

cock-turkey, 

cock-sparrow, 


she-wolf. 

hen-turkey. 

ken-sparrow 



NOUNS. 



35 



72. Different Words for the Masculine and Femi- 
nine. — Sometimes the difference of sex is expressed by 



the use 


of different words. 






Ex. 

Mas. 


Fem. 


Mas. 


Fem. 


bachelor, 
earl, 


maid or spinster, 
countess. 


wizard, 
drake, 


witch, 
duck. 


gander, 
horse, 
king, 
lord, 


goose, 
mare, 
queen, 
lady. 


stag, 
youth, 
monk, friar, 


hind. 

maiden. 

nun. 



EXEKCISE 26. 

GENDER NOUNS AND NEUTER NOUNS. 

Oral. Point out the gender nouns, and give the opposite of each. 
Point out the nouns which imply either sex. 

Fly, nephew, angel, Henrietta, game, stepson, Jesse, bride, 
widow, editor, person, conductor, laundress, bird, baker, Julius, 
schoolmaster, doctor, ewe, lad, spirit, landlord, peacock, cousin, 
cashier, hart, artist, traveller. 



Exercise 27. 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 



Written. Arrange the nouns in columns under the headings 
Proper, Common, Collective, Abstract, and Gender Nouns, repeating 
the same noun, if necessary, in one or more columns. 

Iron, ugliness, council, Emily, mob, beauty, regiment, choir, 
Martin Luther, depth, bevy, duck, noise, chair, Broadway, motion, 
drove, Moses, country, Germany, couple, peace, child, corpse, Satur- 
day, goodness, learning, administratrix. 

NOUNS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORM. 

73. The classes of nouns which we have just noticed 
are distinguished by difference in their use and meaning. 
We have now to notice the classification of nouns ac- 



36 NOUNS. 

cording to their form. Nouns are divided according to 
their form into three classes, Simple, Derivative, and 
Compound. 

74. Simple Nouns. — Simple nouns are such as we 
cannot take apart into yet simpler elements. 

Ex. sun, man, boy, hope, chair, family. 

75. Derivative Nouns. — Derivative nouns are such 
as are made by adding syllables to other simpler words 
now in use in our language. 

76. Prefix. — A syllable which is placed before a 
word to make a new word is called a Prefix. The 
word means ' fixed or fastened on in front? 

Ex. wn-belief, dis-gr&ce. 

77. Suffix. — A syllable which is placed at the end of 
a word to make a new word is called a Suffix. The 
word means 'fixed or fastened on at the end? 

Ex. organ-zs^ mission-an/, hero-ism. 

78. Sometimes Derivative nouns contain both pre- 
fixes and suffixes. 

Ex. un-truth-ful-ness. 

79. Compound ISouns. — Compound nouns are such 
as are made up of two or more words which are separately 
in use in our language. 

Ex. housetop, inkstand, steamboat, blackberry, pickpocket. 

80. Diminutives. — Some Derivative nouns indicate 
objects of small size, or animals not fully grown. These 
nouns are called Diminutives (words showing something 
diminished, or made smaller). 

Ex. gosling, a young goose ; lambkin, a young lamb ; hillock, a 
little hill ; brooklet, a little brook ; bootee, a little boot ; lassie, a young 
lass ; Johnnie, little John. 



NOUNS. 



37 



Exercise 28. 
form of nouns. 

(a) Write a list of the Simple Nouns. 

(b) Write a list of the Derivatives. 

(c) Write a list of the Compounds. 
(c?) Write a list of the Diminutives. 



sunrise 


Englishman 


runaway 


man-servant 


untruth 


blue-stocking 


book 


seashore 


street 


counters 


washtub 


merchant-tailor 


nonsense 


Frankie 


sub-cellar 


after-thought 


darling 


foolishness 


boyhood 


butterfly 


ex-president 


grace 


owlet 


bird 


manliness 


dishonesty 


lawyer 


rainbow 


streamlet 


ungracefulness 


napkin 


railways 


sailor-boy 


security 


heroine 


flower 


beggar 


drawbridge 


iU-will 


goatee 


grindstone 


quicksilver 


spendthrift 


under-current 




INFLECTION. 





81. The change made in the form of a word, either 
to show changes of its own meaning, or to adapt it to 
be used along with other words, is called its Inflec- 
tion. The word means c bending into a different shape ' ; 
and the word thus varied in form is said to be inflected. 

82. Inflection of Nouns. — Nouns are inflected or 
varied in form, to express differences of Number and of 
Case. This inflection of a noun is called its Declen- 
sion. 

NUMBER. 

83. The Two Number-Forms. — There are two 
number-forms : the Singular, used when only one 
thing of a kind is meant ; and the Plural (Latin plus, 
4 more '), used when more than one are meant. 

Ex. Singular, tree; plural, trees. 



38 NOUNS. 

84. Regular Rule for Forming Plurals. — English 
nouns regularly form their plurals by adding s to the 
singular. Sometimes this additional letter has the usual 
sound of s, as in hats ; and sometimes it has the sound 
of z, as in hoes. 

85. Plurals Ending in es. — Nouns ending in the 
sound of s, x, z, sh, ch or zh, form their plurals by 
adding es, pronounced as another syllable. If the word 
ends in a silent e, s only is added. 

Ex. kiss, kisses; horse, horses; ice, ices; topaz, topazes; prize, 
prizes; fish, fishes , church, churches; bridge, bridges. 

It will be seen that this is but a slight variation of 
the regular rule. 

Exercise 29. 

NUMBER. 

Write the plurals of these nouns. 

House, gulf, song, place, safe, grass, hymn, tack, car, match, fox, 
badge, cake, lathe, nose, truth, fence, larch, fire, tax, chair, truce, 
size, branch, mat, wish, fez, cap, bush, cough, arch, sign. 

IRREGULAR PLURALS. 

86. Letters, Figures, and Signs. — Letters, figures, 
and signs form their plurals by adding 's. This is true 
also of words which are spoken of in such a way as to 
seem like nouns. 

Ex. Dot your i's and cross your t's. 

Do not make your 3's and 5's so much alike. 

Make your +'s and —'s larger. 

He uses too many I's and me's and my's. 

87. Nouns Ending- in f or fe. — Some fow nouns 
ending in f or fe form their plurals by changing the 



NOUNS. 39 

f or fe to ves. Other nouns ending in f or fe are 
regular. 

Ex. calf, calves; self, selves; sheaf, sheaves; wharf, wharves; 
knife, knives. 

Regular, puff, puffs; cliff, cliffs; Me,ffes; roof, roofs. 

88. Nouns Ending in y. — Nouns ending in y after 
a consonant add es for the plural, changing the y to i. 
Nouns ending in y after a vowel form their plurals 
regularly. 

Ex. pony, ponies ; lady, ladies; valley, valleys ; boy, boys. 

89. Nouns Ending in o. — Some nouns ending in o 

after a consonant add es to form the plural, but most 

nouns ending in o are regular. 

Ex. cargo, cargoes ; potato, potatoes ; echo, echoes. 
Regular, bravo, bravos; canto, cantos; zero, zeros. 

90. Nouns from Foreign Languages. — Many nouns 
taken from foreign languages form their plurals accord- 
ing to the rules of those languages. 

Ex. phenomenon, phenomena ; analysis, analyses ; beau, beaux ; 
radius, radii; formula, formulae ; index, indices; cherub, cherubim. 

Many of these words, being in very common use, have 
also regular English plurals, which are more commonly 
used than are the foreign ones. 

Ex. formulas, indexes, cherubs. 

91. Plurals Ending in en. — A few nouns form their 
plurals by adding en, with or without other changes. 

Ex. ox, oxen ; brother, brethren (or brothers) ; child, children. 

92. Plurals Formed by Internal Changes. — A few 

nouns form their plurals by internal changes of spelling 

and of sound, instead of by any ending. 

Ex. man, men; foot, feet; tooth, teeth; goose, geese ; louse, lice; 
mouse, mice. 



40 NOUNS. 

93. Same Form for Both Numbers. — Some nouns 

have, either generally or in certain senses, the same form 

for either the singular or the plural number. 

Ex. sheep, deer, trout, shad, yoke, pair, head (of cattle), sail, can- 
non, shot, heathen. 

94. Nouns Used Only in the Singular. — Some 
nouns, such as abstract nouns and names of materials, 
are rarely used except in the singular. 

Ex. peace, beauty, clay, flesh. 

In certain senses, however, the regular plurals are 
sometimes uked. 

Ex. The clays and gravels of the West ; the beauties of form. 

95. Nouns Used Only in the Plural. — Certain 

nouns are always used in the plural. 

Ex. ashes, bellows, tongs, tidings, scissors, trousers, mumps, measles, 
victuals, vitals, entrails, annals, nuptials, obsequies, thanks, riches, 
archives. 

96. Plural Nouns Used in the Singular Sense. — 

Some nouns which are plural in form are singular in 
meaning. 

Ex. news, means, gallows, pains (care), mathematics, politics, 
optics, wages, amends. 

Exercise 30. 

NUMBER. 

Write the plurals of these nouns. 

Money, piano, waif, buffalo, jelly, mouse, volcano, thief, cameo, 
story, tooth, leaf, fairy, buoy, whiff, chimney, lily, radius, hero, 
ally, alley, ruby, tornado, muff, motto, enemy, chief, solo, turkey, 
ox, cry, cuff, wharf, lady, portfolio, soliloquy, veto, attorney, mos- 
quito, pulley, portico, index, wife, child, daisy, embryo, cargo, 
hoof. 



NOUNS. 41 

97. Plurals of Proper Nouns. — Most proper nouns 
form their plurals regularly. 

Ex. The Germans; all the Smiths; the Joneses; both Queen 
Marys; the two Gen. Jacksons ; any of the Henrys of England; 
either of the Mrs. Browns; the Shakespeares and Miltons of our 
time. 

98. Titles. — When we wish to refer to several mem- 
bers of the same family, we may give the plural form 
to the title, instead of to the name. 

Ex. The Misses Blackman ; the Messrs. Irving. 

99. The title is also made plural when it is used with 
-several names. 

Ex. Gens. Grant and Sherman ; Drs. Carey and Field ; Misses 
Mary, Alice, and Edith Browning ; Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin, #• Co.; 
Presidents Cleveland and Harrison. 

100. Plurals of Compound Nouns. — Compound 
nouns generally add the sign of the plural to that part 
of the word which is limited or described by the other 
part. 

Ex. blackbirds, merchantmen, house-tops, steamboats, hangers-on, 
brothers-in-law, knights-errant, commanders-in-chief. 

101. Some words, originally compounds, are no longer 
regarded as such, and are treated as simple words. 

Ex. mouthfuls, handfuls, spoonfuls. 

102. It should be noticed that German, Mussulman, 
Ottoman, Turcoman, and talisman are not compounds of 
man. They form their plurals by adding s. 

103. Some few compounds make both parts of the 
word plural. 

Ex. men-servants, knights-templars. 



42 nouns. 

104. Nouns with Two Plural Forms. — Some 
nouns which may be used in two senses have two plural 
forms, distinct in meaning. 

Ex. penny, pennies (coins); pence (value). 

brother, brothers (same family) ; brethren (same association). 

fish, fishes (separately) ; fish (collectively) . 

genius, geniuses (men of genius) ; genii (spirits). 

index, indexes (table of contents) ; indices (algebraic signs). 

pea, peas (by number) ; pease (by quantity) . 

cloth, cloths (kinds) ; clothes (garments). 

Exercise 31. 

NUMBER. — FOREIGN NOUNS. 

Write the plurals of the following nouns, and explain the meaning 
of each. 

Alumnus, bandit, genus, Monsieur, larva, parenthesis, crisis, stra- 
tum, terminus, synopsis, datum, fungus, nebula, effluvium, verte- 
bra, erratum, cactus, vertex, focus, appendix, axis, oasis, radius, 
phenomenon, ellipsis, beau, hypothesis. 

Exercise 32. 

NUMBER.— DERIVATIVES AND COMPOUNDS. 

Write the plurals of the following nouns, and explain the formation 
of each. 

Cupful, dormouse, pianoforte, woman-servant, aide-de-camp, son- 
in-law, court-martial, Frenchman, jack-in-the-pulpit, go-between, post- , 
master-general, graybeard, looker-on, gentleman, Mussulman, pick- 
pocket, Ottoman, shell-fish, foot-ball, man-of-war, tooth-brush, goose- 
quill, forget-me-not. 

Exercise 33. 

NUMBER. 

Write sentences containing these nouns used in such a way as to 
show the number of each noun. 

1. amends. 2. assets. 3. dozen. 4. aborigines. 5. suds. 6. spe- 
cies. 7. hose. 8. measles. 9. oats. 10. pair. 11. wages. 12. corps. 
13. series. 14. family. 15. goods. 16. clergy. 17. militia. 



NOUNS. 43 

CASE. 

105. Case-Forms. — Besides the number-forms, which 
show changes in the meaning of the word itself a noun 
has also what are called Case-Forms, showing its rela- 
tion to other words in the sentence. 

106. Nominative Case. — A noun which is used as 
the subject of a verb may be said to be in the Subjective 
Case ; but we commonly use instead the old Latin name, 
Nominative (or ' naming ') Case. 

107. Objective Case. — A noun which is used as the 
object of a verb or of a preposition is said to be in the 
Objective Case. 

The Latin name for this case is the Accusative. 

108. Same Form for Both Cases. — The objective 
case of the noun has precisely the same form as the Nom- 
inative case. 

Ex. The trees are bent by the storm. [Nominative.] 
The storm bends the trees. [Objective.] 

In many of the pronouns, however, we have different 

forms for these two cases. 

Ex. They are bent by the storm. [Nominative.] 
The storm bends them. [Objective.] 

109. Possessive Case. — The Possessive Case of 
the noun is so called because it most often shows pos- 
session or ownership, as in the phrase c John's horse? 
Sometimes it shows origin, as in s Baker's Cocoa,' and 
sometimes it tells what kind, as in ' Mens and Youths' 
Overcoats' The Possessive case-form is usually written 
by adding to the common form an apostrophe and s ['s]. 

Genitive Case is the name given to this form in other 
languages. 



44 NOUNS. 

110. Possessive Case Equivalent to Objective with 
the Preposition. — The Possessive Case of the noun has 
commonly almost the same meaning as that of the noun 
after the preposition of. 

Ex. Men's souls = the souls of men ; 

children's toys = the toys of children. 

Sometimes, however, we use both the preposition and 
the possessive form of the noun; for example, 

I will show you a picture of my brother's ; 
He is a servant of the general's. 

This is a peculiar idiom of the English language, and 
is sometimes very difficult to explain. It occurs also 
with pronouns. [See 152.] 

A picture of my brothers may mean one of several 
that he has made or that he owns ; that is, One [picture] 
of my brother's [pictures]. But One of my brother 9 s pic- 
tures may mean also A picture of my brother ; that is, a 
likeness or portrait of him, which may or may not be in 
his possession. It seems, then, that the phrase A picture 
of my brother's expresses a different shade of meaning 
from A picture of my brother. 

Again, we may say, A servant of the general* s, even 
when we know that the general has only one servant ; 
and a picture of my brother's, when he has but one 
picture. 

111. Only Two Case-Forms. — As we have seen, 
English nouns have only two case-forms : the Possessive 
form, which commonly shows possession ; and the form 
which is used in all other relations. We need now to 
study only the Possessive Case, in order to understand 
the complete declension of a noun. 



NOUNS. 45 

RULES FOR THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

112. Possessive Case of Singular Nouns. — The 

possessive case in the singular number is made by add- 
ing 's. This is pronounced sometimes like s, as in cat's, 
sometimes like z, as in dog's, and sometimes it makes an 
additional syllable, as in Charles's. 

113. If a singular noun of more than one syllable ends 
in an s or z sound, the possessive sign is sometimes 
omitted, to avoid the disagreeable repetition of hissing 
sounds. In writing such a noun, the apostrophe alone 
is placed at the end of the word. 

Ex. The princess 9 favorite ; for conscience 9 sake. 

• 

114. Possessive Case of Plural Nouns. — Plurals 
not ending in s form their possessive case in the same 
way as singular nouns. 

Ex. mice's, sheep's, men's, children's. 

115. Plurals ending in s make no change in pro- 
nunciation for the possessive case, but are written with 
an apostrophe after the s. 

Ex. cats 9 , horses 9 , teachers 9 , judges 9 . 

Exercise 34. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Write both singular and plural possessive forms. 

Man, woman, gentleman, lady, boy, girl, wife, child, baby, 
brother, deer, mouse, ox, hero, son-in-law, Frenchman, valley, 
colony, thief, dwarf, princess-royal, Mr. Perkins, Miss Hawkes, 
Mrs. Green. 

116. Possessive Case of Compounds. — In com- 
pound nouns, the sign of the possessive is added at the 
end of the whole compound, of whatever kind it may be. 

Ex. His brother-in-law's position ; the commander-in-chief's orders. 



46 



NOUNS. 



117. Possessive Case of Phrases. — The rule just 
given applies also in the case of a combination of two 
names, of a name preceded by a title, of a noun pre- 
ceded or followed by descriptive or limiting words, and 
so on. 

Ex. George Washington's hatchet ; Peter the HermWs preaching ; 
Queen Elizabeths ruff ; Thomas Robinson Esquire's residence ; his 
dead master Edward'' s memory ; at my cousin William Thompson's ; 
somebody else's fault. 

Exercise 35. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Change to the form of the possessive case. 



1. The rod of Moses. 

2. The barking of the dogs. 

3. The rire of Phoebus. 

4. The works of Dickens. 

5. The greetings of the Friends. 

6. The stings of the bees. 

7. The family of Mr. Hastings. 

8. The convention of teachers. 

9. The signature of the author. 

10. The decision of the judges. 

11. The disciples of Socrates. 

12. For the sake of righteous- 

ness. 

13. The army of Xerxes. 



14. The record of the ball- 

players. 

15. The house of thy servant 

David. 

16. The residence of my father- 

in-law. 

17. The conquests of Alexander 

the Great. 

18. The appointments of the 

postmaster-general. 

19. The crown of the King of 

France. 

20. The execution of Mary 

Queen of Scots. 



118. Nouns Denoting Joint Possession. — If two 

or more possessive nouns imply joint possession of the 
same thing, and are connected by and, the possessive 
sign is used only with the last noun. 

Ex. Lee and Foster's store ; Mason and Hamlin's organs. 

119. Nouns Denoting Separate Possession. — If 

separate possession is implied, or if the nouns are con- 



NOUNS. 47 

nected by or or nor, each one takes the possessive 
sign. 

Ex. But little time elapsed between Grant's and Sheridan's death. 
Is that a boy's or a girl's hat ? 
It was neither England's nor Holland's conquest. 



Exercise 36. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Write in the form of the possessive case. 

1. The home of Mary and Martha. 

2. The homes of Alice and James. 

3. The friendship of David and Jonathan. 

4. The dictionaries of Webster and Worcester. 

5. The factory of Wheeler and Wilson. [Joint possession.'] 

6. The stores of Macy and Huyler. [Separate possession.] 

7. The pianos of Ivers and Pond. [Joint possession.'] 

8. The pianos of Chickering and Steinway. [Separate possession.] 

9. The history of Green, Froude, or Macaulay. 

10. The reigns of Elizabeth and Mary. 

11. The reign of William and Mary. 

12. The poems of Longfellow or Whittier. 

13. The operas of Gilbert and Sullivan. [Joint possession.] 

14. The armies of Grant and Sherman. 

15. The administration of Taylor and Fillmore. 

16. The administrations of Buchanan and Lincoln. 

17. The excursions of Raymond and Cook. [Separate possession.] 

18. The typewriters of Remington and Hammond. [Separate 
possession.] 

19. The line of Mason and Dixon. [Joint possession.] 

20. The crew of Yale or Harvard. 

120. Person of Nouns. — Pronouns have a kind of 
inflection showing whether the speaker is meant, the 
person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of; but 
nouns have no such distinction. A noun used as a sub- 



I 



48 NOUNS. 

ject always takes the verb in the third person, even when 
the noun refers to the speaker or the person spoken to. 

Ex. The subscriber gives notice = / give notice. 
Is your honor well ? = Are you well ? 

121. Complete Declension of Nouns. — From the 
following diagram it will be seen that nouns have only 
four forms, — two number-forms, and two case-forms. 

Number. . \ Sin 2 ular ' 

( Plural. 
r $ Common. S Nominative. 

CaSe ] Possessive.^ Objective. 

122. Examples of Declension. — 

Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. 

Nom. and Obj.: man, men; dress, dresses; cat, cats. 

Possessive : man's, men's ; dress's, dresses' ; cat's, cats'. 



Exsbgise 37. 

DECLENSIONS. 

Write the declension of these nouns. 
Bee, mosquito, book, breeze, cliff, prince, horse, wife, sofa, solo, 
sky, scarf, chimney, Pharaoh, King Henry. 

USES OF THE NOUN. 

123. Thus far in this chapter we have spoken of the 
four, principal uses or constructions of the noun; namely, 

1. As the subject or "subject-nominative " of a verb. 
Ex. Music soothes the weary listener. 

2. As the object of a transitive verb. 
Ex. The two boys made a birch canoe. 



NOUNS. 49 

3. As the object of a preposition. 
Ex. He sent his sons to college. 

4. As denoting possession. 
Ex. This is the mayor's message. 

There are other common uses of the noun, some of 
which we shall now notice. 

124. Predicate Nominative. — A noun which is 
used with the predicate, to complete an assertion by- 
qualifying the subject of the verb, is called a Predicate 
Noun or Predicate Nominative. [See 44.] The 
Predicate Nominative refers to the same person or 
thing as the Subject Nominative, and they are in the 
same case. The verb which joins them is either an 
intransitive verb [See 261] or a passive verb-phrase. 
[See 350.] 

Ex. The captain became an infidel. [Intransitive verb.] 
He was elected governor. [Passive verb-phrase.] 

125. Appositive. — A noun which is used after 
another noun in such a way as to describe or explain 
the first is called an Appositive or a Noun in Apposi- 
tion with the first. 'Appositive'' means 'set alongside 
of.' The Appositive modifies the first noun somewhat 
as an adjective does, but it is not' so closely connected 
with the noun which it modifies. The two nouns may 
be said to be in the same case by Apposition. The case 
may be either nominative, possessive, or objective. 

Ex. Milton, the blind poet, wrote " Paradise Lost." [Nomina- 
tive.] 

We left the card in Mr. Cary's, the secretary's, hands. 
[Possessive.] 

Virginia was named in honor of Elizabeth, the virgin 
queen. [Objective.] 



50 nouns. 

Exercise 38. 

APPOSITIVES AND PREDICATE NOMINATIVES. 

Point out the nouns which are in the same case, and tell whether it is 
by predication or by apposition. 

1. These savages are called cannibals. 2. They had been friends 
in youth. 3. John Howard Payne wrote the favorite song, " Home, 
Sweet Home"; and Drake is best known by his patriotic poem, 
"The American Flag." 4. Books are the legacies of genius. 
5. The great American statesman, Daniel Webster, was born in 
New Hampshire. 6. Rome, " the Eternal City," is built on both 
sides of the Tiber. 7. Audubon was a celebrated naturalist. 
8. Washington has been styled "The American Fabius." 9. In 
the centre of Indian Territory there is a large district called, in the 
Indian language, Oklahoma, the "Beautiful Land." 10. Daniel 
De Foe, the creator of " Robinson Crusoe," was the author of over 
two hundred and fifty works. 

126. Nominative of Address. — Some languages 
have a special form called the Vocative Case, used in 
direct address to a person or thing. In English there 
is no such special form of the noun, but the construc- 
tion is known as the Nominative op Address. The 
noun of address is not a part of the subject or the predi- 
cate, but stands by itself, like an interjection. 

Ex. Ye stars, shine on ! See here, my friend ! 

127. Nominative of Exclamation. — Nouns are 
sometimes used independently in exclamations where 
there is no direct address to a person or thing. This 
construction may be called the Nominative of Ex- 
clamation. These nominatives are also sometimes 
called the Nominative Independent. 

33x, Scotland ! There is magic in the sound. 



NOUNS. 51 

Exercise 39. 

NOMINATIVES OF ADDRESS AND OF EXCLAMATION. 

Point out the nouns used independently, and tell whether they are 
nominatives of address or of exclamation . 

1. Old year, you must not die ! 2. Give me of your boughs, 
O Cedar ! 3. Poor Tom ! he was a sad coward. 4. Come back, 
come back, Horatius ! 5. The Pilgrim Fathers ! where are they V 
6. A man overboard ! What matters it? 7. O the long and dreary 
winter ! 8. Liberty ! Freedom ! Tyranny is dead ! 9. O night and 
storm and darkness ! ye are wondrous strong ! 10. Happy, proud 
America ! The lightnings of heaven yielded to your philosophy ! 

128. Nominative Absolute. — The construction 
known as the Nominative Absolute, or the noun 
used with the participle, cannot be fully explained 
here, since we have not learned the forms and uses of 
participles. [Chaps. VI. and XI.] 

Ex. The trumpet having sounded, both sides rushed to arms. 

129. Indirect Object. — There are certain uses of 
the noun (or pronoun) which represent another case. 
This was formerly distinguished in English by having 
a different form from the nominative, possessive, and 
objective, and is still so distinguished in many lan- 
guages. In English it is called the Indirect Object, 
or the Dative-Objective. In other languages it is 
called the Dative Case. 

The Indirect Object denotes to whom or for whom an 
act is performed, it being equivalent to the objective after 
the preposition to, or, more rarely, the preposition for. 

Ex. I sent my friend a book = I sent a book to my friend. 
Friend is the Indirect Object of the verb sent; and book is the 
Direct Object. 

He made the captain a coat = He made a coat for the captain. 
Captain is the Indirect Object ; coat, the Direct Object. 



52 NOUNS. 



Exercise 40. 

DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS. 

Oral. Point out the direct and indirect objects. 
Written. Draw one line under the direct object and two under 
the indirect. 

1. Gather her a bouquet of roses. 2. He paid the men their 
wages. 3. He told them many strange stories of the sea. 
4. Find me a better pen. 5. The major handed the servant his 
card. 6. Send us a carriage in time for the train. 7. We for- 
give our friends their faults. 8. I will write him a receipt in full. 
9. Cut me a yard of cloth from this piece. 10. I bring thee here 
my fortress-keys. 

130. Adverbial Objective. — Nouns which express 
measure, either of time, distance, weight, number, age, 
or value, etc., may be used like adverbs, to qualify 
verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. They may then be called 
Adverbial Objectives. 

Ex. They walked a mile. [Qualifies the verb walked.] 

The pole was five feet long. [Qualifies the adjective long.] 
You should have come a day earlier. [Qualifies the adverb 
earlier.] 

131. There is now no special case-form for this 
construction ; but we know, from the forms in older 
English and in other languages, that the case of the 
noun is the objective. Besides, we can often use a 
preposition to connect such a noun with the word 
which it qualifies. 

Ex. He waited an hour— He waited for an hour. 

It is three acres larger = It is larger by three acres. 
He died last night = during last night. 
The word is pronounced both icays = in both ways. 
They ran full speed = at full speed. 



NOUNS. 53 

Exercise 41. 

ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVES. 

Point out the adverbial objectives and explain their use. 

1. The river is a mile broad here. 2. Our friends came last 
night. 3. They watched all day long. 4. The temple faces 
both ways. 5. He lives a long way off. 6. The house cost 
twenty thousand dollars. 7. He has crossed the ocean six times. 
8. The mountain is nearly eight thousand feet high. 9. The 
obelisk was made ages ago. 10. It will be all the same a hun- 
dred years hence. 

132. Objective Predicate. — We have learned [124] 
that a predicate noun is one which, being added to the 
verb, forms part of the assertion about the subject of the 
verb; one that is made, through the verb, to describe 
or qualify the subject. But sometimes the noun is 
brought into the same sort of relation to the direct 
object of the verb, describing or qualifying the object. 

Ex. Her companions chose her queen. 

Exercise 42. 

OBJECTIVE PREDICATE. 

Point out the nouns used as objective predicates. 
Change the sentence, making the same noun a predicate nominative : 
thus, She teas chosen queen by her companions. 

1. They call the Emperor "Father." 2. The people elected 
him mayor. 3. Who made him umpire? 4. The church ap- 
pointed their pastor delegate to the convention. 5. The herald 
proclaimed him king. 6. Elizabeth made Raleigh a knight. 
7. The boys called him a coward. 8. The president appointed 
Gen. Grant commander-in-chief. 9. The Turks call their ruler 
Sultan. 10. Whittier's admirers have styled the poet " The 
Wood-thrush of Essex." 



54 NOUNS. 

OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH USED AS NOUNS. 

133. Substantives. — Words that are not properly 
nouns, also phrases and clauses, may be used, in sen- 
tences with the value of nouns. They are then said to 
be used substantively or as Substantives. Substan- 
tive is only another name for a noun. 

134. Adjectives Used as Nouns. — Adjectives are 
often used as nouns. The following are some of the 
most common instances : — 

(a) Adjective used as an abstract noun in the singular 
number. 
Ex. Choose the good, the true, and the beautiful — meaning that 
ivhich is good, etc. 

(5) Descriptive adjective used as a plural noun refer- 
ring to persons. 
Ex. How sleep the brave! [The men who were brave.] 

(c) Adjective derived from a proper noun and referring 

to a certain country, race, sect, party, or language. 

Ex. The Americans; a Lutheran; a Stoic; the Asiatics. Say 
it in French. The English is our mother-tongue. 

135. Adverbs Used as Nouns. — Adverbs are some- 
times used after prepositions, in the sense of nouns. 

Ex. Since then; from hence ; till now. 

136. Infinitives Used as Nouns. — The infinitives of 
verbs are really verbal nouns. [See 283.] 

Ex. To hear is to obey. Seeing is believing. 

137. Phrases Used as Nouns. — Phrases are often 

used substantively. 

Ex. " Too late " is a sad verdict. [Subject.] 

He was discharged for neglect of duty. [Object.] 

His purpose is to lead an honest life. [Pred. Nominative.] 



NOUNS. 55 

138. Clauses Used as Nouns. — Sometimes a com- 
bination of subject and predicate is used as a noun. 

Ex. What happened is of no consequence now. 

The saddest of words are, " It might have been." 

139. Words Referred to Merely as Words. — A 

word of any kind may be regarded as a noun, when 
we refer to it merely as a word, or quote it from a sen- 
tence. 

Ex. He promised without an if or a but. 
"Loved" is a verb. 
When I was young — ah ! wof ul when ! 



Exercise 43. 

SUBSTANTIVES; NOUNS USED AS OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Point out words, phrases, and clauses used substantively. 
Point out nouns used as other parts of speech. 

1. There was mounting in hot haste. 2. Crossing the Alps was 
then a stupendous undertaking. 3. He shows no regard for the 
right. 4. Was is the past tense of be. 5. A rose tree grew by the 
garden wall. 6. The dollar sign looks somewhat like a U and an 
S. 7. What he thinks does not concern me. 8. I gave him all I 
had. 9. Giving brings better interest than hoarding [does], 
10. Goodness! I haven't even a postal. 11. They listened with 
many oh r s and ah's. 12. It is better to fight for the good than to 
rail at the ill. 13. There is a long list of the killed and wounded. 
14. O stern word, Nevermore ! 15. Waves mountain high broke 
over the reef. 16. We shall meet in "the sweet By-and-by." 
17. There the wicked cease from troubling. 18. Those that think 
most govern those that toil. 19. It is but a step from the sublime 
to the ridiculous. 20. " Ay, ay, sir!" burst from a hundred 
throats. 

140. What is Meant by Parsing". — To parse a word 
is to give a complete description of it as it stands in the 



56 NOUNS. 

sentence of which it forms a part. The description 
should always tell these three things about a word : — 

1. Its kind; what part of speech it is, and to what 

class of nouns, adjectives, etc., it belongs. 

2. Its form; what number, case, etc., it has, if it is 

inflected. It is proper, also, to tell whether the 
word is simple, or derivative, or compound, though 
this part of the description is commonly omitted. 

3. Its construction; what relation it has to other 

words in the sentence, whether subject or object or 
predicate-nominative, etc. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING NOUNS. 
141. In parsing a noun, we should tell — 

1. The class to which it belongs. 

2. The gender, if it is a gender-noun. 

3. The number. 

4. The declension. [This may be omitted in oral pars- 

ing.] 

5. The case. 

6. The construction (use in the sentence). 

At first, it is well to give the reason for every state- 
ment that is made in the parsing; but later, when we 
have become so familiar with the reasons that the repe- 
tition is tedious, we may omit them. In the following 
examples, the briefer style of parsing is used. 

EXAMPLES. 

Salt Lake City, the capital, which is about sixteen hundred miles 
distant from Chicago, was then an unbroken wilderness; but the 
entire valley now blossoms as the rose, through the industry of the 
peculiar people who have made it their home. 



NOUNS. 57 

1. Salt Lake City is a proper noun ; singular number ; nominative 
case ; the subject of the verb was. 

2. Capital is a common noun ; singular number ; the inflected 
forms are capital, capital's, capitals, capitals'; nominative case; in 
apposition with Salt Lake City. [125] 

3. Miles is a common noun ; plural number ; the inflected forms 
are mile, mile's, miles, miles' ; objective case; adverbial objective, 
modifying the adjective distant. [130] 

4. Chicago is a proper noun ; singular number ; objective case ; 
object of the preposition from. 

5. Wilderness is a common noun ; singular number ; nominative 
case ; predicate nominative, completing the assertion made by the 
verb was and qualifying Salt Lake City, the subject of the verb. 
[124] 

6. Valley is a common noun; singular number; the inflected 
forms are valley, valley" 1 s, valleys, valleys' ; nominative case; the 
subject of the verb blossoms. 

7. Rose is a common noun; singular number; the inflected 
forms are rose, rose's, roses, roses' ; nominative case ; the subject of 
the verb does, understood. 

8. Industry is an abstract noun ; singular number ; objective 
case; object of the preposition through. 

9. People is a collective noun; plural number; objective case; 
object of the preposition of. 

10. Home is a common noun ; singular number; inflected forms, 
home, home's, homes, homes'; objective case; objective predicate 
noun, completing the assertion of the verb made and qualifying it, 
the direct object of made. [132] 

Exercises for Parsing. 

1. The jury give their verdict. 

2. It was Pentecost, the feast of gladness. 

3. Man became a living soul. 

4. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 

5. The earth is the Lord's. 

6. Cowards die many times before their deaths. 

7. "The Campaign" was a poem in honor of Marlborough's 
victory at Blenheim. 



58 NOUNS. 

8. Time makes the worst enemies friends. 

9. He giveth his beloved sleep. 

10. History casts its shadow far into the land of song. 

11. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul ! 

12. She moves a goddess and she looks a queen. 

13. Hundreds have jostled her by to-night, 
The rich, the great, the good, and the wise. 

14. James was declared a mortal and bloody enemy, a tyrant, a 
murderer, and a usurper. 

15. The soldier's last day's march is over. 

16. A French king was brought prisoner to London. 

17. Neeker, financial minister to Louis XVI., and his daughter, 
Madame de Stael, were natives of Geneva. 

18. In Thackeray's characters we see our own faults reflected ; 
in Dickens's we see our neighbors'. 

19. Truth-teller was our England's Alfred named. 

20. Industry is the demand of nature, of reason, and of God. 

21. The wind ! the wind ! it well may charm 
The rudest soul to rest. 

22. The warbling of birds, the murmuring of streams, the 
enamel of meadows, the coolness of woods, the fragrance of flow- 
ers, contribute greatly to the pleasures of the mind. 

23. Hail ! king of the wild and the beautiful ! 

24. A few miles from this point, where the Rhone enters the 
lake, stands the famous Castle of Chillon, connected with the shore 
by a drawbridge — palace, castle, and prison, all in one. 

25. Abbotsford, the home of Sir Walter Scott, has been called 
"a Gothic romance embedded in stone and mortar." 

26. Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting . . . 
Heaven lies about us in our infancy. 

27. Every why hath a wherefore. 

28. O Solitude ! where are the charms 
That sages have seen in thy face ? 

29. He looks a sachem in red blanket wrapt. 

30. 'Tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter. 

31. Many people know the value of a dollar who do not appre- 
ciate the value of one hundred cents. 

32. Herodotus is called the Father of History. 

33. Thy soul was like a star and dwelt apart. 



NOUNS. 59 

34. Education is .a better safe-guard of liberty than a standing 
army. 

35. Men called the steamboat " Fulton's Folly." 

36. Let me hear thy shouts, thou happy shepherd boy. 

37. Burr had shot Hamilton, his political opponent, in a duel. 

38. The President granted the prisoner a full pardon. 



60 PRONOUNS. 



CHAPTER IV. 

PRONOUNS. 

142. A Pronoun is, as we have seen, a kind of sub- 
stitute for a noun. 

Ex. Washington was the father of his [Washington's] country. 

143. Difference between Nouns and Pronouns. — 

In general, pronouns have the same uses that nouns 
have in making sentences. There are two points of 
difference which we must notice : — 

(a) A pronoun does not really name anything, as a 

noun does. It simply points out some person or 

thing that has been named before, or that is 

shown by a gesture. 

Ex. It happened during the Revolution. That is my picture. 

(6) A pronoun is not qualified by an adjective placed 
directly before it. For example, we say, 

a man, but not a he ; 
these men, but not these we ; 
good men, but not good they ; 

144. Distinction between Pronouns and Adjec- 
tives. — Some of the words which are used as pronouns 
may be used also as adjectives. If the word qualifies a 
noun that is expressed, it is an adjective ; if it stands 
for a noun that is omitted, it is a pronoun. 

Ex. This man is my father. [Adjective.] 
This is my father. [Pronoun.] 



PRONOUNS. 61 

145. Classes of Pronouns. — Pronouns are divided 
into five classes : — 

1. Personal Pronouns. 

2. Demonstrative Pronouns. 

3. Interrogative Pronouns. 

4. Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns. 

5. Indefinite Pronouns. 

146. Inflection of Pronouns. — Pronouns have, in 
general, the same inflection as nouns; namely, for num- 
ber and case. Some of them have for the objective case 
a special form, different from the nominative. The 
inflection of a pronoun is also called its Declension. 

personal pronouns. 

147. Personal Pronouns. — It has been said [120] 
that nouns have no distinction of person ; but it will be 
seen that some pronouns have one form to denote the 
speaker, another to denote the person spoken to, and a 
third to denote the person or thing spoken of. Such pro- 
nouns are called Personal Pronouns, because they 
especially mark differences of person. 

Ex. /write. [First person; denotes the speaker. ~\ 

You write. [Second person ; denotes the person spoken to.~] 
He writes. [Third person ; denotes the person spoken of.~\ 

148. Irregular Inflection of Personal Pronouns. 

— The personal pronouns are very irregular in their 
inflection. The plurals are different words from the sin- 
gulars; the possessives usually have double forms and 
are not made like those of nouns ; both possessives and 
objectives are different words from the nominatives; 
and one of the pronouns makes a distinction of gender. 



62 pronouns. 

Exercise 44. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Draw one line under the pronouns which denote the speaker, two 
lines under those which denote the person spoken to, and three lines 
under those which denote the person or thing spoken of* 

1. Will you tell me a story? 2. Give your flowers to him. 
3. Let them come to my house. 4. We will reward you for your 
kindness to them. 5. Thou art the man. 6. They treat us 
coldly. 7. Ye are the light of the world. 8. I have his book, 
not hers. 9. Here are theirs and yours, but I cannot find mine. 
10. Thy word is a lamp to my feet. 11. New England, we love 
thee. 12. Our wills are ours to make them thine. 

FIRST PERSON. 

149. Declension of the Pronoun of the First Per- 
son. — The pronoun of the first person is thus declined 
[or inflected] : — 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. I we 

Poss. my, mine our, ours 

Obj. me us 

150. Meaning of Plural Forms. — The plural forms 
signify the speaker himself together with the person or 
persons spoken to ; or the speaker himself together 
with any group or company of whom he is one. 

Ex. We [you and I] must not quarrel. 

We [I with my companions] took a long walk. 
We [Americans] live in the Western Hemisphere. 
We [human beings] have the power of speech. 

151. Plural Form with Singular Meaning. — We, 

our, ours, us, are sometimes used by a single speaker 
concerning himself alone. Ourself is sometimes used 
in the same way. [See 164.] 



PRONOUNS. 63 

Ex. [By a sovereign.] We, Victoria, Queen of England, do 
make this proclamation. 

Ex. [By an editor or contributor to a newspaper or magazine.] 
We have our doubts about the wisdom of such a measure. 

152. The Two Possessive Forms. — Our is used 
before a noun, and ours when no noun is expressed. 

Ex. This is our house. 

This is my uncle's house, and the next one is ours. 

The preposition of is sometimes used with the posses- 
sive forms of personal pronouns, as with those of nouns. 
[See 110.] For example : — 

He is a friend of ours ; not, He is a friend of us. 
That is a dress of mine ; not, That is a dress of me. 

SECOND PERSON. 

153. Declension of the Pronoun of the Second 
Person. — 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


thou 


ye, you 


Poss. 


thy, thine 


your, yours 


Obj. 


thee 


you 



154. Uses of the Singular Forms of the Second 
Person. — The pronouns thou, thy, thine, thee, are no 
longer used in ordinary conversation, as they were in 
former times ; but they are kept for higher and more 
serious uses, especially in poetry and in prayer. 

Ex. Thou comest, Autumn, heralded by the rain. 
O Thou to whom all creatures bow. 

155. Use of Ye. — The plural nominative form ye is 
used in much the same way. 

Ex. O night and darkness, ye are wondrous strong. 
O ye hard hearts, ye cruel men of Rome ! 



64 PRONOUNS. 

156. Pronoun Used as the Nominative of Address. 

— Thou and ye (or you) are often used like nouns in 
the vocative case or the nominative of address, as in 
the preceding examples. 

157. Use of You. — You was formerly used only in 
the objective case. It is now the common pronoun of 
address, both nominative and objective, and whether we 
speak to one person or more than one. Since you is 
properly a plural pronoun, it takes a plural verb when it 
is a subject, even though only one person is addressed. 

Ex. You are mistaken — never you is. 
You were sorry — never you was. 

158. Meaning of Plural Forms. — Sometimes the 
plural form of the second person signifies two or more 
persons addressed, and sometimes it refers to one or 
more persons addressed, together with others who be- 
long in one company with them. 

Ex. You [my companions] must listen to me. 
You [Germans] are a nation of scholars. 

THIRD PERSON. 

159. Gender in the Pronoun of the Third Person. 

— The pronoun of the third person distinguishes not 
only number and case, but, in the singular, gender also. 
We use one pronoun when the object referred to is a 
male, another when it is a female, and still another 
when it is of neither sex, or when the sex is not a mat- 
ter of importance. The first form is called the Mascu- 
line because it stands for a masculine gender-noun; 
the second Feminine, because it stands for a feminine 
gender-noun ; and the third Neuter, because it stands 
for any noun that is neither masculine nor feminine. 



PRONOUNS. 65 

160. Declension of the Pronoun of the Third Per- 
son. — 







SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 




f 

Mas. 


Fem. 


Neut. 




Nam. 


he 


she 


it 


they 


Poss. 


his 


her, hers 


its 


their, theirs 


Obj. 


him 


her 


it 


them 



161. Use of He and She. — By the use of he and 

she we mark a distinction of sex — 

(a) In those creatures in which the difference of sex is 
important ; and especially in human beings. 

(6) Sometimes in personified objects. For example, we 
speak of the sun as he, and the moon or the earth 
as she. 

162. Gender of Pronouns Referring to Animals. 

— We sometimes use he and she with reference to the 
lower animals, without any intention of being exact 
about their sex. For example, we use he with reference 
to the dog, and she with reference to the cat, because of 
certain qualities which seem to us masculine or femi- 
nine, as the case may be. More often, however, we use 
the pronoun it in speaking of the lower animals, their 
sex not being of enough importance to be noticed. So, 
too, we use it with reference to child, baby, infant, etc., 
because these are not gender nouns, and the sex is either 
unknown or disregarded. 

163. Special Uses of It. — It has a variety of special 
uses. The most important are the following : — 

(a) It often stands as the subject of a verb, instead of 
the phrase or clause which is the real subject, 
and which is then put after the verb. 



66 PRONOUNS. 

Ex. It is doubtful tolietlier he will come. 
It is sweet for one's own land to die. 

That is, — 

Whether he will come is doubtful. 
To die for one's own land is sweet. 

In such sentences it is called the grammatical 

subject, and the phrase or clause is called the 

logical subject ; that is, the subject according 

to the real meaning, or logic, of the sentence. 

(5) It often stands as the impersonal subject of a 

verb, not signifying any real subject, but helping 

the verb to express an act or condition without 

reference to any actor. 

Ex. It rains. It was cold. It grew dark fast. It will soon 
strike ten. Is it far to London ? It came to blows between them. 

(<?) Sometimes it is used as the impersonal object of 

a verb. 

Ex. They footed it through the streets. He lorded it over his 
servants. 

164. Compound Personal Pronouns. — The word 
self is added to my, our, thy, your, him, her, and it, and 
the plural selves to our, your, and them, thus forming a 
class of Compound Personal Pronouns, which have 
two principal uses : — 

(a) To express emphasis, either alone, or with the sim- 
ple pronoun. 

Ex. He thinks of no one but himself I myself saw it. 

(5) As the reflexive object of the verb ; that is, an 
object denoting the same person or thing as the 
subject. 

Ex. I dress myself They saw themselves deceived, You will 
hurt yourself 



PRONOUNS. 67 

The simple pronoun is sometimes used refiexively. ■ 
Ex. He laid him down. 

Ourself and yourself denote a single person ; ourselves 
and yourselves more than one. 

Exercise 45. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Arrange these pronouns in three columns, according to the person, 
heading the columns " First," " Second," and " Third." Tell what is 
the number and case of each pronoun : also which are the gender-pro- 
nouns. 

you, me, thine, their, our, it, him, us, ye, thou, theirs, your, 
thee, hers, he, them, ours, they, my, she, his, mine, we, yours, her, 
thy, its. 

Exercise 46. 

SPECIAL USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Explain the use of the Italicized pronouns. 

1. It is well to think before you speak. 2. The boys are rough- 
ing it in the woods. 3. I laid me down and slept. 4. They held 
themselves in readiness to march at a moment's notice. 5. It was 
a long way to the sea-coast. 6. Columbus himself thought that 
America was a part of Asia. 7. The king replied, "Ourself will 
pardon him." 8. We have met the enemy, and they are ours. 
9. The infant held a nation's destiny in its feeble grasp. 19. By 
the fall of Quebec, France lost her hold on America. 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

165. The Demonstrative Pronouns are those which 
point out or direct attention to any person or thing. 
The only demonstrative pronouns are the following : — 



NGULAR. 


Plural. 


this 


these 


that 


those 



68 PRONOUNS. 

166. Inflection. — All these words are used both as 
nominative and objective cases, and they have no pos- 
sessive. 

167. Uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns. — 

(a) This and these are used to mean something nearer to 
the speaker; that and those, something farther off. 

(6) That and those are used in place of a noun which 
would otherwise have to be repeated along with a 
phrase describing it. 

Ex. My horse and that [not it] of my neighbor. 

That is, my horse and the horse of my neighbor. 

(<?) The demonstrative pronouns are often used with 
nouns, thus having the value of adjectives. They 
are then called Demonstrative Adjectives. 
[234] 

Ex. That flower is a daisy. These men are Spaniards. 

168. Herewith and Therewith. — The compounds 
herewith and therewith may be used as demonstrative 
pronouns. 

Ex. I send yon herewith [= with this] a copy of the letter. 
Seizing the booty, he departed therewith [= with that] . 

Exercise 47. 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 

Draw one line under the demonstrative pronouns and two lines under 
the demonstrative adjectives. 

1. This word is a nonn. 2. That is a verb, and these are adjec- 
tives. 3. This is the place. 4. Gold and silver are found among 
these mountains. 5. That happened before those records were 
published. 6. Pointing to her sons, Cornelia said, "These are 
my jewels." 7. May that peace never again be broken ! 8. The 



PRONOUNS. 69 

tree was covered with its own blossoms and with those of a vine 
that had climbed upon its branches. 9. This world is our working- 
place ; that, our resting-place. 10. The tempest spares the home 
of the wealthy planter no more than that of his humblest slave. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

169. The Interrogative Pronouns are those that 
ask questions. 

They are who, which, what, and whether. 

They are used in interrogative sentences ; and their 

usual place is as near as possible to the beginning of the 

sentence. 

Ex. Who comes here ? Which of us does he seek ? What does 
he want ? 

1 70. Declension of Who. — The interrogative pro- 
noun who is thus declined : — 

Singular or Plural. 
Nom. who 
Poss. whose 
Obj. whom 

171. Inflection of the Other Interrogative Pro- 
nouns. — The other interrogative pronouns have no 
forms of declension, and are used only as nominatives 
and objectives. Which and what are either singular or 
plural; whether is singular only. 

Ex. Which is your book ? What is his reason ? 

Which are your books ? What are his reasons ? 

172. Whether is rarely used now, being an old- 
fashioned word for ' which one of two.' 

Ex. Whether is greater, the gift or the altar ? 

1 73. Distinction between Who and What. — Who 

is used with reference to persons ; what may be used 



70 PRONOUNS. 

with reference to anything else, whether living beings 
or inanimate things. 

Ex. Who gave you permission ? 

What is that running across the road? 

174. Use of Which. — Which may apply to either 
persons or things. It differs from who and what in 
being selective ; that is, it implies that the right one is 
to be picked out from a number or group of individuals. 

Ex. Which of these three boys is the strongest ? 

175. Which and What used as Interrogative 
Adjectives. — Which and what are the only interroga- 
tive pronouns which may be used with the value of 
adjectives. When so used, they may be called Inter- 
rogative Adjectives. [235] 

Ex. What kind of fruit do you like best ? 
Which army won the battle ? 

Exercise 48. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 

Draw one line under the interrogative pronouns and two lines under 
the interrogative adjectives. 

1. Which is the wiser course? 2. What message shall I send? 
3. Who wrote " The King's Highway " ? 4. Whose hand painted 
the flowers of the meadow ? 5. What has the gray-haired prisoner 
done? 6. Whether of them twain did the will of his father? 
7. What good will it do? 8. Whom seek ye in this forest? 
9. Which of the queens of England were buried in Westminster 
Abbey ? 10. What man is free from sin ? 

RELATIVE OR CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

176. The demonstrative pronoun that and the inter- 
rogative pronouns who, which, and what are also used in 



PRONOUNS. 71 

a way which is called "relative " ; and, when so used, they 
are known as Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns. 

177. Antecedent of the Relative. — The relative 
pronoun is so called because it refers or relates to a 
noun or another pronoun in the same sentence. Since 
this noun or pronoun is generally placed before the 
relative in the sentence, is is called the Antecedent 
Q one going before ') of the relative. 

Ex. The gift which you ask shall be bestowed. 

178. Uses of the Relative Pronoun. — The relative 
pronoun introduces a separate clause, which has a sub- 
ject and predicate of its own and which describes or 
limits the antecedent. The relative is sometimes called 
a Conjunctive Pkonoun, because it is used like a con- 
junction to join this descriptive clause to the antecedent. 

1 79. Relative Clauses. — A clause which is intro- 
duced by a relative pronoun may be called a Relative 
Clause. When it is used in the sense of a noun, it is 
called a Noun Clause ; and when it has the value of 
an adjective, it is called an Adjective Clause. 

Ex. I know ivhat you think. [Noun Clause, used as the object 
of the verb.] 
The birds that built in this tree last year have returned. 
[Adjective Clause, pointing out which birds.~\ 

180. Complex Sentences. — The relative pronouns 
are used only in what are called Complex Sentences. 
A complex sentence is one which is made up of one 
simple sentence (or clause) and one or more dependent 
clauses, combined either by these relative pronouns, or 
by conjunctions, into one whole. 

Ex. This vine, which has been growing for three ?jears, bears no 
grapes. 



72 PRONOUNS. 

This is a complex sentence, made up of the simple 
sentence, This vine bears no grapes, and the relative 
clause, which has been growing for three years. This 
relative clause is said to be " dependent," because it 
does not, by itself, make complete sense. 

Exekcise 49. 

RELATIVE CLAUSES. 

Divide the complex sentence into two clauses, marking the bare 
subject and predicate of each clause. Place the relative clause 
under the other, in such a way that the relative is directly below 
its antecedent. Connect the relative and its antecedent by a brace, 
in order to show that their relation is what binds the two clauses 
into one sentence. 

Ex. The church that was destroyed by fire has been rebuilt. 
The church > I has been rebuilt. 



that ) | was destroyed by fire. 

If the relative belongs not to the subject but to the predicate 
of the clause in which it stands, the words must be rearranged to 
show this relation. 

Ex. The man whom we met looked like a sailor. 

The man ) | looked like a sailor, 
we | met whom S 

1. The city to which I refer is Constantinople. 2. It was Noah 
Webster who made the famous dictionary. 3. The evil that men 
do lives after them. 4. He who would search for pearls must dive 
below. 5. Read to us the last letter which she wrote. 6. The king 
of whom I speak was a child of nine years. 7. It is I who should 
ask pardon.* 8. The boy whose knife was lost has bought another. 
9. The love of money, which has been called " the root of all evil," 
causes untold misery. 10. The settlers of Plymouth, who are 
known to us as " the Pilgrim Fathers," laid the foundations of re- 
ligious liberty in America. 



pkonotjns. 73 

Exercise 50. 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

Rewrite the sentences, using adjective clauses in place of the adjec- 
tives. 

Ex. I like black ink. I | like ink 7 

which ) is_ black. 
Explain (orally) why each new sentence is complex. 

1. The prize was given to the most faithful boy. 2. Ripe, rosy- 
cheeked apples lay under the tree. 3. A very learned man made 
this mistake. 4. A peddler found the lost bag of money. 5. En- 
tertaining books often do more harm than good. 6. The doctor 
bought a three-year-old colt. 7. Many of the Pacific islands are 
the work of coral insects. 8. Among the gifts were a Turkish 
rug and a Japanese screen. 9. By the roadside is a never-failing 
spring. 10. Industrious people never have too long a day. 

181. Use of Who. — The relative who is inflected 

like the interrogative who, and is generally used only 

with reference to persons. 

Ex. The man who was [or the men ivho were"] recently with us, 
whose character we respected, whom we loved, and with whom we 
shared joys and sorrows, has [or have'] been taken from us. 

182. Use of Which. — Which is applied to living 
creatures that are not persons, and to things. 

Ex. We have the letter which he wrote. 

Show me the butterfly which you caught. 

Which was, in former times, applied to persons. 
Ex. Our Father which art in heaven. 

183. Whose as the Possessive of Which. — WJwse 
is often used as the possessive of ivhich. 

Ex. A tale whose lightest word would harrow up thy soul. 

Many persons think it better to use of which, since 
whose is not properly a form of the pronoun which. 



74 PRONOUNS, 

184. Use of That. — That is a very general relative. 

It may be used instead of either who or which, referring 

to either persons or things, and to one or more than one. 

Ex. One of the best men that [who] ever lived. [Plural.] 
The head that [which] wears a crown. [Singular.] 

185. That, when used as a relative, does not follow 
a preposition. 

In the phrases to that, from that, with that, etc., the 

pronoun that is not relative, but demonstrative. 

Ex. From that [demonstrative] came the story that [relative] 
we heard. 

The first that is used to point out, as we may see if 
we place after it some noun, as " From that remark," or 
" From that circumstance" 

186. The relative that is sometimes used as the object 
of a preposition which comes at the end of the sentence. 

For example, we may say, — 

The book that I told you of, or 

The book which I told you of ; but only 

The book of which (not of that) I told you. 

187. Use of What. — What does not have an ante- 
cedent actually expressed in the sentence, but it con- 
tains within itself both antecedent and relative, being 
equivalent to that which (that demonstrative and which 
relative). What is not used of persons. 

Ex. What [that which] you say is true. 

I saw what [that which] he was doing. 

188. Compound Relatives. — What may be called a 
Compound Relative, since it combines the office of 
antecedent and relative. In older English, that was 
often used in the same way. 

Ex. Do that is righteous. 



PRONOUNS. 75 

Who and which are often used in a similar way, with 
no antecedent expressed. Which has then the same 
selective force that it has as an interrogative pronoun. 

Ex. We well know who did it, and whose fault it was, and whom 
people blame for it, and which of them most deserves blame. 

Exercise 51. 

NOUN CLAUSES. 

Rewrite the sentences, using noun clauses instead of the phrases in 
Italics. Separate the compound relative into the antecedent and simple 
relative, and write the compound relative beside the brace. 

Ex. I know your wishes. I | know that j ^ 

you | wish which y §- 

It will then be shown that the demonstrative pronoun that is the 
antecedent of the relative which, and is also the object of the verb 
know. 

1. She always tells the truth. 2. The Venetians use boats instead 
of carriages. 3. He told us his dream. 4. We saw a model of 
Solomon's temple. 5. I am acquainted with the book, but not with 
its author. 6. They listened eagerly to the words of the prophet. 
7. The captain paid no attention to the passers-by. 8. The prisoner 
acknowledged his guilt. 9. Few of us really appreciate the value 
of time. 10. We have just heard of the general's death. 

Exercise 52. 

RELATIVE CLAUSES. 

Point out the antecedent of each relative, the subject and predicate 
of each relative clause, and tell whether each is a noun clause or an 
adjective clause. 

1. They found arrow-heads that were made by the Indians. 
2. You see what comes of disobedience. 3. What is right must 
be done. 4. The trees which bend over the river are willows. 
5. I know what happened to the king's army. 6. The man who 



76 PRONOUNS. 

hesitates is lost. 7. That you will be sorry some day is my proph- 
ecy. 8. In the second conflict with England, which is often called 
the War of 1812, Winfield Scott was the hero of the North. 

9. The day which had been appointed for the burial was stormy. 

10. Many animals that live in the Arctic regions have white fur. 

189. Personal Pronoun as Antecedent of the 
Relative. — If the antecedent of the relative is a pro- 
noun of the first or the second person, the relative, if 
used as a subject, takes the verb in the corresponding 
person. The same is true if the antecedent is a noun 
or pronoun in the vocative case. 

Ex. 7, who am your friend, tell you so. 

To thee, who hast thy dwelling here on earth. 

Dark anthracite, that reddenest on my hearth ! [Vocative.] 

190. Indefinite Relative Pronouns. — The Indefi- 
nite Relative Pkonotjns are made by adding ever or 
soever to who, which, and what. Whoso is the old form 
of whosoever. These are called Indefinite Relatives, 
because they mean ' any one, any thing, any one of 
them.' 

Ex. Whoever did it ought to be ashamed. 
He will give you whichever you want. 
They overthrow whatever opposes them. 
Whoso seeth his brother have need, etc. 

191. Omission of the Relative That. — The relative 

that, when used as the object of a verb or of a preposition 

following a verb, is very often omitted, the descriptive 

clause being left without any introducing word. 

Ex. The man [that or whom] we saw here is gone. 
The horse \_that or which] he rode on is lame. 

192. That as a subject is sometimes omitted in 
poetry. 

Ex. 'Tis distance [that] lends enchantment to the view. 



PRONOUNS. 77 

193. Other Parts of Speech Used as Relative Pro- 
nouns. — The adverbs when, where, whence, why, whither, 
how, are used in a relative sense, almost as if they were 
cases of who and what, or equivalent to what and which 
used with prepositions. 

Ex. You see the place where [ = in which] he stands. 
You see where [ = in what place'] he stands. 

194. The compounds of where with prepositions, 
wherewith, whereby, wherein, etc., are used in the same 
relative sense. 

Ex. He had no roof wherewith [ = with ivhich] to shelter them. 
I do not know wherein [= in what] he failed. 

195. As Used as a Relative Pronoun. — The con- 
junction as is often used as a relative pronoun, when it 
follows such. 

Ex. I love such as [ = those who] love me. 

196. But Used as a Relative Pronoun. — But is 

sometimes used after a negative verb, as a kind of nega- 
tive relative, equivalent to that not. 

Ex. There is not a man here but knows it. 

That is, There is not a man here who does not know it. 

197. Relative Pronouns Used as Adjectives. — The 

relative pronouns which and what with their compounds, 
whichever and whatever, are often used in the sense of 
adjectives. They are then called Relative Adjec- 
tives [236]. 

Ex. I know which book she will choose, [that book' which.] 
I see what reward you will have, [that reward which.] 
Whichever road you take will bring you home, [any road 
which.] 



78 PRONOUNS. 

Exercise 53. 
use of pronouns in sentences. 

Write sentences containing the following words. 

1. The relative pronoun that. 2. The demonstrative pronoun 
that. 3. The demonstrative adjective that. 4. The relative pro- 
noun who. 5. The interrogative pronoun who. 6. The relative 
pronoun what. 7. The interrogative pronoun what. 8. The 
relative adjective what. 9. The interrogative adjective what. 
10. The interrogative pronoun which. 11. The interrogative ad- 
jective which. 12. The relative pronoun which. 13. The relative 
adjective which. 14. The interrogative adjective whose. 15. The 
relative adjective whichever. 16. The interrogative pronoun whether. 
17. The indefinite relative whoever. 18. As used as a relative. 
19. But used as a relative. 20. Where used as a relative. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

198. Under the name of Indefinite Pronouns are 
included certain classes of words which, by derivation 
or by use, have a likeness to pronouns. Most of them 
are used as adjectives also [239]. In fact, they seem 
to be half-way between real pronouns on the one hand, 
and nouns and adjectives on the other. Among the 
Indefinite Pronouns are the following classes: — 

(a) The Distributives, each, either, and neither. 

These relate to objects taken separately, and are 
always singular. 

(6) The Words of Number and Quantity, some, 
any, many, few, all, both, aught, and naught. 
Also the compounds of some, any, every, and no, with 
one, thing, and body ; as something, any one, nobody. 

(c) The Comparatives, such and other. 

(d) The Reciprocals, or the pronoun-phrases having 

a mutual sense. These are each other and one 
another. 



PKONOUNS. 79 

199. Inflection. — The only indefinite pronouns 
which have plural forms are one and other. Only a few 
of them have a form for the possessive case. These are 
one, other, somebody, any one, nobody, etc. 

Exercise 54. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 

Draw one line under each indefinite pronoun and tell to what class 
it belongs. Draw two lines under each indefinite adjective. 

1. Fear nothing, but hope all things. 2. All that breathe will 
share thy destiny. 3. Few shall part where many meet. 4. Few 
and short were the prayers we said. 5. Any attempt to injure 
either will surely come to naught. 6. Such is the tale the settlers 
tell. 7. Both were young, and one was fair. 8. Select such as 
you prefer. 9. None but the brave deserves the fair. 10. Sin 
has many tools, but a lie is the handle which fits them all. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING PRONOUNS. 

200. In parsing a pronoun we should give — 

1. The class to which it belongs. 

2. The antecedent, if it is a simple relative; if it is 

compound, the equivalent antecedent and simple 
relative. 
Ex. What = that which. 

3. The gender, if it is a personal pronoun of the third 

person singular. 

4. The person, if it is a personal or a relative pro- 

noun. 

5. The number. 

6. The declension, if it is inflected. 

7. The case. 

8. The construction. 



80 PRONOUNS. 

In general, the constructions of the pronoun are the 
same as these of the noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

These | are the men j 

some of whom ) | visited us yesterday. 

1. These is a demonstrative pronoun ; plural number ; Sing, this, 
PI. these ; nominative case ; the subject-nominative of the verb are. 

2. Some is an indefinite pronoun of number or quantity; not 
inflected, but used here as a plural, meaning more than one man ; 
nominative case ; subject-nominative of the verb visited. 

3. Whom is a relative pronoun ; its antecedent is men ; third 
person and plural number, because its antecedent is ; Norn, who, 
Poss. whose, Obj. whom; objective case; object of the preposition 
of. Whom is also conjunctive, joining its antecedent men and the 
adjective clause, some of whom visited us yesterday. 

4. Us is a personal pronoun ; first person ; plural number ; Norn. 
1, Poss. my or mine, etc. ; objective case ; direct object of the verb 
visited. 

Exercise for Parsing. 

1. Who are you, who talk of peace ? 

2. Who steals my purse steals trash. 

3. Who is it leans from the belfry, with face upturned to the sky ? 

4. Man cannot cover what God would reveal. 

5. The fur which warms a monarch warmed a bear. 

6. Whom the gods love die young. 

7. In this, 'tis God directs ; in that, 'tis man. 

8. Hold fast to those you can trust. 

9. It was told the king of Egypt that the people fled. 

10. He that can have patience can have what he will. 

11. What is my present misfortune may be forever yours. 

12. I that speak unto thee am he. 

13. I tell thee thou'rt defied ! 

14. Ye are living poems, and all the rest are dead. 

15. Men must reap the things they sow. 

16. Happy is that people whose annals are brief. 

17. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 

18. That tongue of hers will make trouble. 



PRONOUNS. 81 

19. I used some for myself and some for a friend of mine. 

20. Power laid his rod of rule aside, 
And Ceremony doff'd her pride. 

21. It matters very little what immediate spot may have been 
the birthplace of such a man as Washington. 

22. There is no wind but soweth seeds 
Of a more true and open life. 

23. You moon, have you done something wrong in heaven, 
That God has hidden your face? 

24. Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed. 

25. And thou too, whosoe'er thou art, 

That readest this brief psalm, 
As one by one thy hopes depart, 
Be resolute and calm. 

26. By the light of these torches, parties of fugitives encoun- 
tered one another, some hurrying towards the sea, others flying 
from the sea back to the land. 

27. Among the beautiful pictures 

That hang on Memory's wall, 
Is one of a dim old forest, 
That seemeth best of all. 

28. Show me the happy man whose life exhibits these qualities, 
and him we will salute as gentleman, whatever his rank may be. 

29. All these angels, who were waiting, turned their beaming 
eyes upon the people who were carried up into the star ; and some 
came out from the long rows in which they stood, and fell upon 
the people's necks, and kissed them tenderly, and went away with 
them down avenues of light, and were so happy in their company 
that, lying in his bed, he wept for joy. 

30. I see in thy gentle eyes a tear ; 

They turn to me in sorrowful thought ; 
Thou thinkest of friends, the good and dear, 

Who were for a time, and now are, not, 
Like these fair children of cloud and frost, 
That glisten a moment and then are lost, — 

Flake after flake, — 
All lost in the dark and silent lake. 

31. Talent is that which is in a man's power; genius is that in 
whose power a man is. 



82 ADJECTIVES. 



CHAPTER V. 

ADJECTIVES. 

201. An Adjective is a word used to qualify a noun 
or sometimes a pronoun. [143 6.] It is a descriptive 
word, pointing out some quality or condition or action 
or relation, or the like, as belonging to the object named 
by the noun. 

Ex. good man ; whipped dog ; jumping frog ; this book ; yonder 
tree. 

The adjective merely mentions the quality, condition, 
etc., and does not assert that it belongs to the object. 
That can be done only by means of a verb; as, for 
example, The man is good ; The dog was whipped. 

202. Classes of Adjectives. — The largest class of 
adjectives includes all those which express some quality. 
They are called Descriptive Adjectives or Adjec- 
tives of Quality. 

Ex. black, sweet, awful, sincere. 

Besides the adjectives of quality, there are three 
special classes, — the Articles, the Numerals, and 
the Pronominal Adjectives. 

INFLECTION. 

203. Inflection of Adjectives. — Adjectives do not 
have in English, as they have in many other languages, 
any inflection, or change of form, to express differences 
of n,umber or case or gender. 



ADJECTIVES. 83 

The only exceptions are the pronominal adjectives 
this and that, which are changed to these and those before 
a plural noun. 

Ex. this man ; these men ; that book ; those books. 

204. Comparison of Adjectives. — Many adjectives, 
however, have a change of form to mark the degree of 
the quality which they express. This change of form 
is called Comparison, because it implies a comparing 
of the object described by the adjective with other 
objects that have the same quality. 

For example, ' a long string ' implies simply that the 
string has the quality of length. c A longer string ' im- 
plies that this particular string is compared with another 
and found to be of greater length. ' The longest string ' 
implies that this particular one, among any number 
compared, exceeds all the rest in length. 

205. Degrees of Comparison. — The adjective long 
is said to be of the Positive Degree; longer, of the 
Comparative Degree; and longest, of the Superla- 
tive Degree. The comparative and superlative degrees 
are formed from the simple adjective, or the positive 
degree, by adding er or r for the comparative, and est 
or st for the superlative. 

The comparative degree strictly implies a comparison 
of two objects ; the superlative, of more than two. 

Ex. John is the younger of the two sons, and the youngest of 
all the children. 

Exercise 55. 

COMPARISON. 

Which degree of the adjectives is used ? 

Tallest; green; harder; surest; quaintest; serene; slower; ablest; 
untidy; graphic; oldest; interesting; gloomier; frailest; purer; 
majestic; wealthiest; cheery; venerable; newest. 



84 adjectives. 

Exercise 56. 

COMPARISON. 

Compare the adjectives. Ex. Positive, brave; Comparative, braver; 
Superlative, bravest. 

Black ; neat ; clear ; fierce ; ready ; short ; odd ; pretty ; fine ; 
droll ; great ; idle ; cross ; shy ; glossy ; red ; deep ; bright ; in- 
tense; pleasant. 

206. Adjectives which may be Compared. — What 
adjectives may be compared depends partly upon their 
meaning, since some qualities or conditions do not admit 
of a difference in degree. 

Ex. equal, dead, yearly, French. 

But it depends much more upon their form. Most 
adjectives of one syllable can be compared; but com- 
paratively few of two syllables, and almost none of three 
syllables. 

207. Adjectives not Compared. — Adjectives which 
are not compared have their variations of degree ex- 
pressed by the adverbs more and most, thus making 
compound forms or adjective phrases, which have the 
same meaning as the comparative and superlative 
degrees. 

Ex. famous, more famous, most famous, 
distant, more distant, most distant. 

208. Some adjectives which admit of comparison 
often form phrases of this kind instead. 

Ex. able ( abler ( ablest 

< more able ( most able 

common ( commoner ( commonest 

( more common (. most common 



ADJECTIVES. 



85 



209. When an object is said to have more of one 
quality than of another, the adjective phrase with more 
is always used. 

Ex. The news is more true than pleasant [not truer than pleas- 
ant]. 

210. The adverbs less and least combine with adjec- 
tives to make phrases which imply degrees of quality 
below the positive. 

Ex. least formal, less formal, formal, more formal, most formal. 



Exercise 57. 

COMPARISON. 

Which of these adjectives may be compared? 
Which are used with i more ' and ' most ' f 

Wrong; heart-rending; true; immortal; supreme; dreary; sin- 
cere ; polite ; square ; false ; daily ; entire ; sublime ; beautiful ; 
annual ; empty ; noble ; accurate ; round ; fashionable ; complete ; 
principal ; hollow ; full ; furious ; level ; fortunate ; straight ; cor- 
rect; early. 

211. Irregular Comparison. — A few adjectives 
have irregular comparisons, as follows : — 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


good 


better 


best 


bad) 
ill > 


worse 


worst 


little 


less 


least 


many > 
much > 


more 


most 


old 


(" older 
( elder 


( oldest 
( eldest 


KJXVJL 


late 


( later 
( latter 


( latest 
(last 


near 


nearer 


( nearest 
(next 



86 



ADJECTIVES. 



212. Some comparatives and superlatives have no 
adjective, but an adverb instead, for their positive 
degree. 

Superlative. 
r furthest 

< furthermost 
( farthest 
( foremost 
(first 
( inmost 
\ innermost 
r outmost 

< outermost 
( utmost 
(upmost [rare] 
\ uppermost 



Positive. 


COMPARATIV 


forth 


( further 
( farther 


[also/ar] 


fore 
iraes an adjective.] 


former 


in 


inner 


out 


( outer 
1 utter 



up 



upper 



213. Some words take the ending most to form a 
kind of superlative, though they do not distinguish any- 
positive or comparative degrees. 

Ex. midmost, undermost, nethermost, northernmost, southernmost, 
endmost, topmost 

214. Proper Adjectives. — The descriptive adjec- 
tives which are derived from proper nouns are some- 
times called Proper Adjectives. Each proper adjec- 
tive should begin with a capital letter. 

Ex. American, from America ; Mosaic, from Moses. 



Exercise 58. 

PROPER ADJECTIVES. 

Write sentences containing proper adjectives derived from the fol- 
lowing nouns : — 

Rome ; Homer ; Australia ; Venice ; Mexico ; Chili ; Spain ; 
Shakespeare; Amazon; Turkey; Italy; Christ; Japan; Portugal; 
Sweden. 



ADJECTIVES. 87 

ARTICLES. 

215. The Articles. — The Articles an or a and the 

are adjective words, since they are always used along 
with nouns, to limit or qualify them. 
Ex. a crown; an olive; the laurel. 

216. The Indefinite Article. — An or a is the weak- 
ened form of the numeral one. It is called the Indefi- 
nite Article, and is used only with a singular noun. 
An is used before a vowel sound; a, before a conso- 
nant. 

The article an is by many persons used before a word 
beginning with a pronounced h, and accented on the 
second syllable. 

Ex. an hotel ; an hypothesis ; an historical novel. 

Before the sound of y or w, however written, the 
article a is used. 

Ex. Such a one ; a union ; a European — just as we say, a 
wonder ; a youth. 

217. In phrases like Hwo miles an hour,' 'ten cents a 
yard,' the a or an is not exactly an article, but the 
weakened form of one in the sense of each one, every. 

218. In such phrases as, ; a-hunting,' ' a-going,' the a 
has nothing to do with either the article or the numeral, 
but is a sort of preposition. 

219. The Definite Article. — The Definite Arti- 
cle the is the weakened form of that. 

220. The the which is used before a comparative 
(adjective or adverb) in such phrases as 'the more, 
the merrier,' is not an article at all, but an adverb. 



88 ADJECTIVES. 

NUMERALS. 

221. The Numeral Adjectives. — The Numerals 
are the adjectives which express number. The principal 
ones are those which are used in counting, or in answer- 
ing the question ' how many ? ' They are called the 
Cardinal Numerals, or simply the Cardinals. 

Ex. two; thirteen ; forty ; hundred; million; etc. 

222. Cardinals used as Nouns. — The cardinals are 
used not only as adjectives, but also substantively, either 
standing for a noun or connected with a following noun 
by the preposition of. 

Ex. They saw the three [men] once more. 
Three of the men were seen again. 

223. When used as nouns, these numerals all form 
plurals. 

Ex. They came in by twos and threes. 

They sat down by fifties and hundreds. 

224. The higher numbers, hundred, thousand, mil- 
lion, etc., usually keep the singular form in simple num- 
bers, even after two, three, etc. ; and they always keep 
the singular form in compound numbers made up of 
different denominations. 

Ex. This boy can connt np to two hundred. 
I have two hundreds in my minnend. 
The sum is six million five thousand four hundred and twenty. 

225. Dozen is often used instead of twelve, score in- 
stead of twenty, and the old form twain is still sometimes 
used for two. 

226. Numerals Derived from the Cardinals. — 

Three classes of numerals are derived from the cardinal 



ADJECTIVES. 89 

numbers. They are the Ordinals, the Fractionals, 
and the Multiplicatives. 

227. The Ordinals. — The Ordinals show the order 
of anything in a series. They are commonly formed 
from the cardinals by the use of the suffix th. 

Ex. fourth; tenth; seventieth; eighty-ninth; thousandth. 

First, second, third, from one, two, three, are exceptions 
to this rule of formation. 

228. The Fractionals. — These same ordinals, except 
first and second, are used to denote one of a certain num- 
ber of equal parts into which anything is supposed to 
be divided. When used in this sense, they are called 
Fractionals. 

Ex. Here is a third part or a third, of an apple. 

How many cents make six hundredths of a dollar? 

The fractional corresponding to two is half, instead 
of second; and quarter is frequently used instead of 
fourth. 

229. The Multiplicatives. — In order to show how 
many times anything is taken, or by what it is multi- 
plied, the cardinal numeral is compounded with the 
word fold. These compounds are called Multiplica- 
tives. 

Ex. There is a three-fold necessity for caution. 
The seed increased a hundred-fold. 

Simple, double, triple, quadruple, and a few others in 
pie, less often used, may be included under the Multi- 
plicatives. 

The numeral adverbs once, twice, thrice, have a similar 
multiplicative sense. 



90 adjectives. 

Exercise 59. 

NUMERALS. 

Explain the use of each of the numerals. 

1. The screw serves a double purpose. 2. The storm lasted 
three days. 3. May is the fifth month of the year. 4. The song 
is written in quadruple time. 5. But half of our heavy task was 
done. 6. He has lived beyond the three-score-and-ten allotted 
to man. 7. February has twenty-nine days every fourth year. 
8. Away they all went, twenty couple at once. 9. Rich in the 
possession of two strong hands, I do not envy him his millions. 
10. Into the valley of Death rode the six hundred. 11. There 
stood the dauntless three. 12. I will not destroy the city for ten's 
sake. 13. Add two to the column of tens. 14. He bought a 
dozen boxes of matches. 15. Great progress has been made dur- 
ing the last quarter-century. 16. The wind returned with ten- 
fold velocity. 17. Xerxes numbered his army by ten-thousands. 
18. Tens of thousands of pins must be lost every day. 19. The 
necessity for haste seemed to cause a hundred-fold delay. 20. Seven 
times one are seven. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

230. Pronominal Adjectives are pronouns which 

are used with the value of adjectives. It has already 

been shown, in the chapter on Pronouns, that the 

same word may be used either adjectively, qualifying 

a noun, or substantively, as a pronoun, standing for 

a noun. 

Ex. Each season has its own peculiar charm. [Adj.] 
Summer and winter — each has its charm. [Pro.] 

231. Classes of Pronominal Adjectives. — Pronomi- 
nal adjectives are divided into classes corresponding to 
those of the pronouns. They are the Possessives, the 
Demonstratives, the Interrogatives, the Rela- 
tives, and the Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives. 



ADJECTIVES. 91 

232. The Possessives. — The Possessives are the 
same as the possessive cases of the personal pronouns. 



Singular. 






Plural. 


1st Person. 




my, mine 


our, ours 


2d Person. 




thy, thine 


your, yours 




( m. 


his \ 




3d Person. 


V 


her, hers > 


their, theirs 




In. 


its ) 





To these personal pronouns may be added whose, the 
possessive case of who, both as relative and as inter- 
rogative. 

233. Use of the Second Forms. — The second forms 
— mine, ours, thine, etc. — are used when no qualified 
noun follows the possessive. 

Ex. Here are my book and yours ; bring me hers and theirs. 
This man is an old friend of ours. [See 110 and 152.] 

In old-style English, mine and thine are often found 
used for my and thy, especially before a vowel. 

Ex. He will grant thine every wish. 

234. The Demonstratives. — The Demonstrative 

Adjectives are this, these; that, those; yon, yonder. 
The first two pairs are the same as the demonstrative 
pronouns, and are used with the same differences of 
meaning when adjectives as when pronouns. [167 c.~] 
Yon or yonder points to an object which is remote, but 
generally in sight. 

Ex. What is the name of yonder mountain ? 

235. The Interrogatives. — The interrogative pro- 
nouns which and what are often used as adjectives, and 
are then called Interrogative Adjectives. [175] 



92 ADJECTIVES. 

Both of them refer to either persons or things, the only 

difference between them being that which is selective. 

Ex. What book have you ? [What is its title ?] 

Which book have you ? [Implies that a selection has been 
made from several books.] 

236. The Relatives. — Which and what are also the 
only Relative Adjectives. Both are usually com- 
pound relatives, or imply the antecedent along with the 
relative ; and which differs from what in being selective. 
[197] 

Ex. I know what book [that is, the book, in general, which] you 
mean. 
I know which book [that is, the book, in particular, of a cer- 
tain known set, which] you mean. 

237. Which is sometimes used adjectively as a simple 

relative, the antecedent not being included within itself. 

Ex. He was gone a year, during which time he travelled all 
over Europe. 

238. The compound forms whichever and whatever 

may also be used as relative adjectives. 

Ex. I see fresh proofs, whichever way I look. 
Whatever work he undertook prospered. 

239. The Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives. — 

Most of the indefinite pronouns, with a few other simi- 
lar words, are used also as Indefinite Pronominal 
Adjectives. [198] The most important classes of 
these adjectives are the following : — 

(a) The Distributives: each, every, either, neither. 

Of these, every is always an adjective. 
(J) The Quantit atives : some, any, many, few, all, 

both, no. These are often called Indefinite 

Numerals. 



ADJECTIVES. 93 

The phrases ' a great many,' i a few,' ' a little,' are used 
with a following noun as if they were adjectives ; but 
the quantitative is here really a noun. 

Ex. A great many men (that is, A great many [of] men). 

Many, which is commonly used only with plural 
nouns, may qualify a singular noun preceded by a or an. 
Ex. Full many a gem of purest ray serene. 

(c) The Comparatives : such and other. Such implies 
a resemblance, and other a difference. Other, like 
comparative adjectives in general, is followed by 
than. 
Ex. Other worlds than ours. 

Exercise 60. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Classify the following adjectives. 

Yonder ; neither ; fourth ; five-tenths ; awful ; that ; Swiss ; what- 
ever ; each ; sixty-fold ; thine ; magnificent ; whose ; every ; such ; 
little; the; Brazilian; thousand; which; those; many; double; 
other; theirs; Chinese; what; few; literary; Jeffersonian. 

Exercise 61. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Point out the adjectives, and mention to what class each belongs. 

1. Much harm may be done by a few thoughtless words. 

2. What English bird sings in the evening ? 

3. I cannot imagine what bird you mean. 

4. Which states were admitted during Grant's administration ? 

5. Both doctors said the same thing. 

6. He believes whatever idle rumors he may hear. 

7. Many a weary mile those pilgrims trod. 

8. The breaking waves dashed high on a stern and rock-bound 
coast. 



94 ADJECTIVES. 

9. He is never alone whose hourly companions are noble 
thoughts. 

10. The largest lake is three miles long and half a mile wide. 

11. Every man would live long, but no man would be old. 

12. Whose dying words were, " Don't give up the ship " ? 

13. We saw five tall soldiers in gay red uniforms. 

14. The first words in the third column are proper nouns. 

15. Broad fields of ripening grain met our view. 

16. Such men deserve to be fortunate and happy. 

17. Bright-colored birds flit among the lofty branches of these 
tropical forests. 

18. These tall shrubs bear many large white flowers. 

19. For thirty-four hours, nineteen batteries rained shot and 
shell against the fort. 

20. Very few people are good economists of their fortune. 



FORM OF ADJECTIVES. 

240. Classification. — Adjectives, like nouns, may 
be divided, according to their form, into Simple, De- 
rivative, and Compound. 

241. Simple Adjectives. — Simple Adjectives are 
those which cannot be traced back to still simpler words 
in our own language. 

Ex. red; good; round; sincere. 

242. Derivative Adjectives. — Derivative Adjec- 
tives are made from other words in our language, by- 
additions or other changes of form. The following are 
some of the most important classes : — 

(a) Adjectives derived from Nouns by the addi- 
tion of suffixes : — 

ly, fatherly, homely, daily ; 

ful, truthful, hateful, useful ; 

ous, odorous, mischievous, murderous ; 



ADJECTIVES. 95 

al f brutal, fatal, national ; 

ic, despotic, telegraphic ; 

able, marriageable, peaceable ; 

y, filthy, hearty, misty ; 

ish, childish, foolish, Turkish ; 

some, troublesome, toilsome ; 

less, fearless, homeless, endless ; 

en, wooden, golden, silken ; 

ed, horned, jacketed, barefooted. 

(6) Adjectives derived from Other Adjectives 
by the aid of suffixes denoting difference of 
degree : — 

er, smaller, longer, prettier ; 

est, tallest, strongest, ugliest ; 

ish, bluish, roundish, youngish ; 

ly, weakly, cleanly, deadly; 

some, wholesome, gladsome, wearisome. 

(Y) Adjectives derived from Other Adjectives 

by the aid of prefixes : — 

un, untrue, unfaithful, unending ; 
in, inactive, incapable, inconstant ; 

with others, less numerous and regular ; such as, 

international ; extraordinary ; antenuptial ; postdiluvial ; preter- 
natural ; subacid ; superabundant ; co-eternal ; raaZcontent. 

(d) Adjectives derived from Verbs: — 

The present participle in ing, loving, giving, shining ; 

The past participle in ed, loved, varied, petted ; 

The past participle in en, given, bitten, frozen ; 

The past participle without a suffix, sung, wound, fought ; 
The verbal adjective in able, lovable, disputable, change- 

able. 



96 ADJECTIVES. 

243. Compound Adjectives. — Compound Adjec- 
tives are formed by putting together two English 
words. The most important classes are as follows : — 

(a) A Compound of Two Adjectives, the first hav- 
ing commonly the force of an adverb qualifying 
the other. 

Ex. new-horn (newly born) ; full-fed; hard-gotten. 

(5) A Compound of an Adjective with a Pre- 
ceding Noun. 

Ex. life-like; homesick; milk-white. 

(c) A Compound of an Adjective with a Pre- 

ceding Adverb. 

Ex. ever-lasting ; over-bold ; fore-ordained. 

(d) A Compound of a Noun with a Preceding 

Adjective that qualifies it, and with ed added 
as an adjective suffix. 

Ex. four-footed; red-haired; old-fashioned. 



Exercise 62. 

FORM of adjectives. 

Classify the following adjectives according to their form. 
Explain the formation of the derivative and compound adjectives. 

Coal-black ; ornamental ; oaken ; sunburnt ; slow ; yeasty ; 
handsome ; long-headed ; unfruitful ; barefooted ; rock -bound ; 
honest; three-pronged; grieved; bookish; low-toned; pathless; 
coarse ; tuneful ; telephonic ; glowing ; good-natured ; greenish ; 
half -finished ; seven-hilled; beautiful; knee-high; never-dying; in- 
tercollegiate ; water-tight ; laughing ; brotherly ; untruthful ; heart- 
rending ; wounded ; changeable. 



ADJECTIVES. 97 

USES OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

244. The adjective has but one general office; 
namely, to qualify a noun ; but it does this in three dif- 
ferent ways. We have, therefore, three principal con- 
structions or uses of the adjective, as follows : — 

245. I. Attributive. — When an adjective is simply 
added to a noun to describe it, without being part of an 
assertion made about it, it is called an Attribute or 
an Attributive Adjective. If we say, c This man is 
oldj we assert something in regard to his age ; but if 
we say, ' This old man,' we merely mention his age as 
an attribute ; that is, a part of the description of the 
man. 

An attributive adjective is rarely used before a pro- 
noun ; as, for example, 'poor little me.' It may qualify 
a noun in any construction whatever, and it is commonly 
put before the noun. 

Ex. My dear friend's generous heart led him to give the tired 
traveller a delightful rest, last week, in the best room of his elegant 
house. 

246. II. Appositive. — When an adjective is joined 
to a noun or a pronoun in a looser and more indirect 
way, as if it were the predicate of an abbreviated de- 
scriptive clause, it is called an Appositive Adjective. 
Its use is much like that of the appositive noun ; and it 
is often, but not always, placed after the noun which it 
qualifies. 

Ex. All poetry, ancient and modern, abounds in sentiment. 
That is, All poetry, whether it be ancient or modern. 

Tired and hungry, he hastened home. 
That is, Since he was tired ynd hungry. 



98 ADJECTIVES. 

247. III. Predicative. — When an adjective quali- 
fies the subject of a verb and at the same time completes 
the assertion made by the verb, it is called a Predicate 
Adjective [46], and the construction is said to be 
Predicative. 

248. Verbs of Incomplete Predication. — The verbs 
which commonly take predicate nouns and adjectives are 
sometimes called Verbs of Incomplete Predication. 
The following are the principal classes of such verbs : — 

(a) The verb be, in its various forms. 

Ex. I am ready. He is angry. They will be sorry. 

(5) Become, with other verbs used in nearly the same 

sense, as grow, get, turn, etc. 

Ex. He became confused. Her face grew red. This ink turns 
black. 

(ji) Remain, continue, stay, etc. 

Ex. The captive remained silent. He continues sulky. 

(c?) Seem, appear, look, etc. 

Ex. The clouds look dark. She seems tired. 

(e) Sound, smell, feel, etc. 

Ex. J feel cold. The rose smells sweet. 

(f) Verbs of condition and motion, such as stand, sit, 

go, move. 
Ex. The door stands open. He sat mute. 

249. Special Classes of Predicate Adjectives. - — 

The predicate adjective may have other uses besides 
that of qualifying the subject of the verb. We have, 
therefore, certain special classes of predicate adjectives, 
which are known as the Adverbial Predicate and 
the Objective or Factitive Predicate. [132] 



ADJECTIVES. 99 

250. Adverbial Predicate. — In some sentences, and 
especially with the verbs of condition and motion, the 
predicate adjective seems to modify both the subject and 
the verb. For example, in the sentence, c The sun shines 
bright,' we mean not merely that the sun is bright, but 
also that the shining is bright. Such an adjective may be 
called an Adverbial Predicate Adjective, because 
it seems to have something of the force of an adverb. 

Other examples are, He stands firm; The milk has 
turned sour ; The tone rings clear and full. 

251. Objective or Factitive Predicate. — An adjec- 
tive which is joined to the verb in such a way as to 
qualify the direct object of the verb is called an Objec- 
tive Predicate Adjective. 

Ex. He made the stick straight. 

The adjective straight qualifies the object sticky by 
becoming a kind of addition to the verb made, and thus 
describing the action exerted on the stick. He made 
straight [that is, he straightened] the stick. 

The objective predicate occurs most often with a verb 
that is used in a factitive sense ; that is, in the sense of 
making or causing. 

Ex. She wrings the clothes dry = She makes the clothes dry by 
wringing. 
I sang my throat hoarse = I made my throat hoarse by 
singing. 

Exercise 63. 

ATTRIBUTIVE AND APPOSITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

Draw one line under the attributive adjectives, and two lines under 
the appositives. 

1. Young, handsome, and clever, the page was the darling of the 
house. 2. She wedded a man unlearned and poor. 3. The inelan- 



100 ADJECTIVES. 

choly days are come. 4. The white and fleecy waves looked soft 
as carded wool. 5. The Spartans, equally cautious, waited for a 
favorable omen. 6. And there lay the rider, distorted and pale. 
7. This is the forest primeval. 8. And there, still and silent as the 
dead, clustered the whole English army. 9. Many a carol, old and 
saintly, sang the minstrels. 10. The gentle rain refreshed the 
thirsty flowers. 11. On the table before them was lying a Bible, 
ponderous, bound in leather, brass-studded, printed in Holland. 
12. We, poor in friends, sought their love. 13. After a three 
days' march he came to an Indian encampment. 14. It was the 
calm and silent night. 15. The rock resembles a great, hoary, 
massive castle, buttressed and turreted, like the grim strong-hold of 
some ancient German baron. 



Exercise 64. 

PREDICATE ADJECTIVES. 

Explain each construction, 

1. Grief made her insane. 2. They had been beautiful in youth. 
3. They stretched the rope tight. 4. The apples look ripe, but 
they do not feel mellow. 5. Do you hear the robins singing? 
6. That is best which lieth nearest. 7. The messenger came run- 
ning and panting. 8. The lightning struck him dead. 9. He 
feels weary, but he carries his head high. 10. The precipice seems 
steep and terrible. 11. Try to keep the water hot. 12. The gate 
stands open, but the garden is deserted. 13. We arrived here 
safe. 14. All went merry as a marriage bell. 15. All God's 
angels come to us disguised. 16. The startled river turns leaden 
and harsh. 17. The light burns dim. 18. The temptation was 
irresistible. 19. Noisiest fountains run soonest dry. 20. The 
fisherman stood aghast. 

252. Other Parts of Speech Used as Adjectives. — 

(a) Nouns. — Nouns, especially the names of material, 
are often used in the sense of adjectives. 
Ex. A gold watch ; a steel pen ; a stone wall ; country customs. 



ADJECTIVES. 101 

(5) Adverbs. — Occasionally an adverb is used as an 

adjective. 
Ex. My sometime friend; the then governor ; the down train. 

(c-) Verbs. — As has already been shown, the participles 
are used as verbal adjectives. 
Ex. A whistling wind; a beaten path ; a long-delayed letter. 

(ef) Prepositions. — Prepositions are sometimes, but 
rarely, used as adjectives. 
Ex. In after ages; the above example. 

253. Adjectives Used as Other Parts of Speech. — 

(a) Adverbs. — Sometimes, and especially in poetry, 
the adjective is used in the sense of the adverb. 
Ex. The bell clanged loud and clear. 

(6) Nouns. — Adjectives are often used substantively. 
Ex. The land of the free and the home of the brave. 

254. Without being used as a noun, an adjective very 
often stands alone, in such a way that we must supply 
a noun after it in order to make the meaning complete. 
The adjective is then said to qualify a noun understood. 

Ex. He owns a white horse, and I a black [horse]. 
She is a good [girl], but not a beautiful girl. 

Exercise 65. 

Point out adjectives used as other parts of speech ; also other parts 
of speech used as adjectives. 

1. The wonderful cataract is spanned by a rainbow arch. 

2. To the convent portals came all the blind and halt and 
lame. 

3. They gave no thought to the after effects of such an action. 

4. Yonder heavy clouds foretell a thunder storm. 



102 ADJECTIVES. 

5. He sighed for a home on the rolling deep. 
(3. Forty sails shone in the morning sunlight. 

7. The farmer boy leaned against the rail-fence and broke into 
a horse laugh. 

8. Sea birds by hundreds and thousands hovered around the 
cliffs. 

9. The box contained a gross of buttons, a few needles, and 
half-a-dozen spools of thread. 

10. Let the million-dollared ride ! 

11. The sunset glow is fading in the west. 

12. History is a record of the past; prophecy, a vision of the 
future. 

13. The bells make iron music through the land. 

14. Love and tears for the Blue ; 
Tears and love for the Gray. 

15. Toll ye the church-bell sad and slow. 

16. The living should live though the dead be dead. 

17. He fed the hungry and clothed the poor. 

18. The sentinel stars set their watch in the sky. 

19. The wisest is a fool ; the fool Heaven-helped is wise. 

20. The whispering wind stirred weeping willow and moaning 
pine. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING ADJECTIVES. 

255. In parsing an adjective, we should tell — 

I. The class — whether an adjective of quality, an 

article, a numeral, or a pronominal adjective. 
II. The sub-class. For example, if it is a pronominal 
adjective, we should tell whether it is possessive, 
demonstrative, interrogative, relative, or indefi- 
nite. 
III. The degree, 



. if the adjective can be compared. 
IV. Ine comparison, ) J 

V. The construction — attributive, appositive, or predi- 
cative — with its relation to other words in the 
sentence. 



ADJECTIVES. 103 



EXAMPLES. 

If we climb the steep path up these hills, we shall pass one or two 
Buddhist temples, and come upon many wild-flowers, bright and 
fragrant, shaded by oaks which seem prodigious in size. 

1. The is an article; definite; used attributively, to modify the 
noun path. 

2. Steep is an adjective of quality ; of the positive degree ; com- 
pared, steep, steeper, steepest ; attributive ; describes path. 

3. These is a pronominal adjective ; demonstrative ; plural in 
form; used attributively, to modify the noun hills. 

4. One and two are numeral adjectives; cardinals; used attribu- 
tively, to modify the noun temples. 

5. Buddhist is an adjective of quality; proper, being derived 
from the proper noun Buddha ; attributive ; describes temples. 

6. Many is a pronominal adjective ; indefinite ; quantitative ; 
used attributively, to modify the compound noun wild-flowers. 

7. Bright is an adjective of quality ; of the positive degree ; 
compared, bright, brighter, brightest ; used appositively after the noun 
wild-flowers, of which it is an attributive. 

8. Fragrant is an adjective of quality; not compared, the degrees 
being expressed by the use of the adverbs more and most : in the 
same construction as bright. 

9. Shaded is an adjective of quality, being the past participle of 
the verb shade: not compared, except by more and most; used 
appositively ; qualifies wild-flowers. 

10. Prodigious is an adjective of quality ; not compared, except 
by more and most ; used predicatively, after the verb seem ; qualifies 
the noun oaks. 

Exercises for Parsing. 

1. Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. 

2. Great is truth, and mighty above all things. 

3. Nothing can be great which is not right. 

4. Every third sentence is an exclamation of delighted sur- 
prise. 

5. They knew him to be a warm-hearted, free-handed, high- 
minded man. 



104 ADJECTIVES. 

6. Unto the pure all things are pure. 

7. My father gave me honor, yours gave land. 

8. With lower, second, and third stories shalt thou make it. 

9. He is a just, but not a generous man. 

10. The potatoes were boiled soft. 

11. We are all at sixes and sevens. 

12. This boast of thine is vain and empty. 

13. Whatever things were gain to him, those he counted loss. 

14. Every seventh year was held sacred by the Jewish people. 

15. The less you have to do with firearms, the better. 

16. He is more polite than sincere. 

17. What heroes fell at Marathon ! 

18. Behold yon river winding to the sea. 

19. The loveliest of the three was asleep, and smiling in her 
dreams. 

20. A great deal of talent is lost to the world for the want of a 
little courage. 

21. He planed the board smooth. 

22. The eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill. 

£l£ j|£ £l£ £l£ £|£ 3|£ 

And the tents were all silent, the banners alone, 
The lances unlifted, the trumpets unblown. 

23. For mine own part, 

I shall be glad to learn of noble men. 

24. The bravest are the tenderest, 
The loving are the daring. 

25. He was a ready orator, an elegant poet, a skilful gardener, 
an excellent cook, and a most contemptible sovereign. 

26. Build on, and make thy castles high and fair, 
Rising and reaching upward to the skies. 

27. Columbus had thought about this plan for many years, 
during which time he had vainly sought help from royal courts. 

28. Slow and sure comes up the golden year. 

29. In by-gone days, no well-to-do farmer thought that he could 
get in his hay without a good-sized jug of old-fashioned whiskey 
to refresh himself and his hired men. 

30. We know what master laid thy keel, 
What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. 



ADJECTIVES. 105 

31. Soon o'er the yellow fields, in silent and mournful procession, 
Came from the neighboring hamlets and farms the Acadian 

women, 
Driving in ponderous wains their household goods to the 
seashore. 

32. This antique, yellow, Moorish-looking stronghold, which 
modern gunnery would destroy in ten minutes or less, is picturesque 
to the last degree, with its crumbling, honey-combed battlements 
and queer little flanking towers. 

33. And the curious country people, 

Rich and poor, and young and old, 
Came in haste to see this wondrous 
Winged steed, with mane of gold. 

34. Pious, just, humane, temperate, and sincere ; uniform, digni- 
fied, and commanding — his [Washington's] example was as edify- 
ing to all around him as were the effects of that example lasting. 

35. To the Druids, the mistletoe, a parasitic, evergreen plant 
growing on certain trees, seemed especially sacred. 

36. Unheard, because our ears are dull, 

Unseen, because our eyes are dim, 
He walks our earth, the Wonderful, 
And all good deeds are done to Him. 

37. Half-way down a by-street of one of our New England 
towns stands a rusty wooden house, with seven acutely-peaked 
gables facing towards various points of the compass, and a huge 
clustered chimney in the midst. 

38. The guillotine hushed the eloquent, struck down the power- 
ful, and abolished the beautiful and the good. 

39. The ocean eagle soared 

From his nest by the white wave's foam. 

40. A beautiful behavior is better than a beautiful form ; it 
gives a higher pleasure than statues and pictures ; it is the finest 
of the fine arts. 



106 VERBS. 



CHAPTER VI. 

VERBS. 

256. A Verb is a word that tells or declares or 
asserts something. 

Ex. Speak; draw; reads; understands. 

257. Every sentence must have a verb in it, to form, 
either alone or with other words, the predicate of the 
sentence. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

258. Verbs may be divided, according to their use 
in sentences, into two classes, Transitive and Intran- 
sitive. 

259. The Object of a Verb. — Some verbs are natu- 
rally followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective 
case, showing what person or thing receives, or is the 
object of, the action expressed by the verb. This noun 
or pronoun is called the Object of the verb. [47] 

For example, the expressions c I persuade ' and c I 
cross ' seem by themselves incomplete, and we expect 
some word expressing the person or thing that is per- 
suaded or crossed. This word, answering the question 
' what ? ' or ' whom ? ' is the object of the verb which it 
follows. 

Ex. I persuade my friend to sing. 
I cross the road to meet him. 



VERBS. 107 

260. Transitive Verbs. — A verb which thus takes 
an object in order to complete its meaning is called a 
Transitive Verb. ' Transitive' means 'going over.' 
The word implies a passing over of the action from the 
subject to the object. 

Ex. The captain rowed the boat. 

261. Intransitive Verbs. — A verb which does not 
thus take an object to complete its meaning is called an 
Intransitive Verb. 

Ex. The master frowne d. All nature rejoices.- 

262. Transitive Verbs Used Intransitively. — The 

distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is 
not an absolute one, but depends upon the way in 
which the verb is used in the sentence. Almost all 
transitive verbs may be used intransitively, no mention 
being made of the object which receives or endures the 
action. 

Ex. The captain struck his servant. [Transitive.] 

The ship struck on a sunken reef. [Used intransitively.] 

263. Intransitive Verbs Used Transitively. — So, 

also, verbs that are commonly intransitive may be used 
transitively. The object of such a verb is often a 
noun of similar meaning ; as, He dreamed a dream ; She 
lived a useful life. Such nouns are called Cognate 
Objects. 

264. Intransitive verbs become transitive when used 
in a causative or factitive sense. [251] 

Ex. Boys ^y kites; that is, cause kites to fly. 

He works his men hard ; that is, makes them work hard. 



108 VERBS. 

Exercise 66. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

Point out the transitive and the intransitive verbs. 

1. They led a captive in chains. 2. The path led along by the 
river. 3. You are a widow, I believe. 4. The child believes 
every word you say. 5. I believe; therefore have T spoken. 
6. As he slept, he dreamed. 7. They slept the sleep of the 
weary. 8. She worked herself into a passion. 9. She worked 
faithfully. 10. He died in battle. 11. He died a dreadful 
death. 12. Sound the trumpets, beat the drums. 13. The trum- 
pets sound, the drums beat. 14. Lay the apples on the grass. 
15. Fragrant apples lay on the grass. 16. He walked to town. 
17.. He walked his horse all the way. 18. He stands his ground 
manfully. 19. Do not stand in my way. 20. They stand the 
chairs in a row against the wall. 

Exercise 67. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE USE OF SAME VERB. 

Write sentences containing the following verbs, used both transitively 
and intransitively : — 

Weep ; freezes ; flew ; teach ; spend ; rings ; saw ; wave ; under- 
stand; answer; sings; rained; write; runs; mourned* succeeds; 
speaks ; broke ; moved ; returned. 

INFLECTION. SIMPLE VERBAL FORMS. 

265. Conjugation.- — Verbs, like nouns and pro- 
nouns, have certain changes of form, in order to express 
changes of meaning. This inflection is called the Con- 
jugation of the verb. 

266. Three Forms of Inflection. — The changes 
which a verb may undergo are of three kinds. The 
conjugation of a verb therefore includes three forms of 
inflection. They are: 1. The Tense-Forms ; 2. The 
Mode-Forms; 3. The Person-and-Number-Forms. 



VERBS. 109 

TENSF 

207. The Tense-Forms show a difference in the 

time of the act or state expressed by the verb. 

Ex. I write this letter, [now ; this morning.] 
I wrote this letter, [three weeks ago.] 

268. Tenses. — The verb has two of these tense- 
forms or simple Tenses. That which refers to present 
time is called the Present Tense. That which refers 
to past time is called the Preterit Tense. (Some- 
times called simply the Past Tense.) 

269. Peculiar Use of the Present Tense. — The 

present tense is sometimes used with reference to what 

is past or future, when we wish to make it vivid and 

distinct. 

Ex. In the third century begins the rivalry between Rome and 
Carthage. 
He enters college next year. 

Exercise 68. 

TENSE. 

Tell whether the verbs are of the present tense or the preterit. 

1. The weaver sits at his loom. 2. We love our country, but 
they died for her. 3. Leonidas and his men staud firm while 
the Persians attack them. 4. The stag paused upon the brink 
of the precipice. 5. The summer comes and the summer goes. 
6. Our cousins go abroad next year. 7. Under "the five good 
emperors " the Roman Empire reached its greatest prosperity ; 
and now it begins to decline rapidly to its fall. 8. Then came 
the laborers home from the field, and serenely the sun sank down 
to his rest, and twilight prevailed. 9. The paths of glory lead 
but to the grave. 10. I read on the stone this singular inscrip- 
tion. 11. After conquering the provinces, Csesar returns to 
Rome. 12. Sparks from the engine set fire to the forest. 



110 VERBS. 

Exercise 69. 

TENSE. 

Write the present tense of each of the following verbs : — 

Sat ; taught ; was ; rowed ; spread ; beat ; grew ; brought ; 
thrust ; heard ; answered ; stood ; sang ; came ; wrote ; said ; flitted ; 
made ; met ; gave. 

Write the preterit tense of each of the following : — 

Lie (to recline) ; lie. (to tell a falsehood) ; set (to place) ; fly , 
flee ; defy ; read ; burst ; flow ; see ; run ; burn ; reign ; cut ; fill ; 
fell ; fall ; bury ; stir ; bear. 

MODE. 

270. The Mode-Forms are so called because they 
show a difference in the mode or manner of the assertion. 

Ex. 1. He is kind to his parents. [States a fact.] 

2. If he were kind to them, they would not be unhappy. 
[Expresses a supposition not founded on fact; a con- 
ditional or doubtful assertion.] 

3. Be kind to your parents. [Gives a command.] 

271. Modes. — The verb has three Modes: the 
Indicative, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative. 

2 72. The Indicative Mode. — The Indicative Mode 
is chiefly used to make a simple, direct assertion. It is 
the mode most commonly used. 

Ex. It snows. Gold glitters. The Romans withdrew. 

273. The Subjunctive Mode. — The Subjunctive 
Mode is sometimes used in making doubtful or condi- 
tional assertions, which commonly form only part of a 
sentence. 

Ex. If 1 be in the wrong, I will confess it. Though he swear 
it, they will not believe him. Supposing she were there, 
what could she do ? 



VERBS. Ill 

274. The subjunctive has very nearly gone out of 
use in modern English. This is true especially of its 
preterit tense. No verb except be has a preterit sub- 
junctive that differs from the indicative. In place of 
the subjunctive we use either the indicative or some of 
the verb-phrases which will be described later. 

275. The Imperative Mode. — The Imperative 
Mode is used to express command or entreaty. 

Ex. Go away. See that ship! Be still ! 

276. The imperative has but one form, which is 
used for both the singular and the plural. Its subject, 
thou, you, or ye, may be expressed, coming after the 
verb, but it is usually omitted. 

Ex. Go, or go thou. Beware, or beware ye. 

Exercise 70. 

MODE. 

Tell whether the mode is indicative, subjunctive, or imperative. 

1. If thine enemy hunger, feed him. 2. A band of Indians 
galloped over the plains. 3. Speak gently to the erring. 4. If 
time be of all things the most precious, wasting time is the great- 
est prodigality. 5. He that prays harm for his neighbor begs a 
curse upon himself. 6. Be it ever so humble, there's no place 
like home. 7. Stand ! the ground's your own, my braves ! 
8. Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 9. If men were 
wise in little things, the world would be the better for it. 
10. When Lafayette visited America the second time, he asked 
with astonishment, " Where are the common people?" 11. Speak 
clearly, if you speak at all. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

277. Inflection for Person and Number. — There 
are certain changes in the verb which depend, not upon 



112 VERBS. 

the meaning of the verb itself, but upon the person and 
number of the noun or pronoun which is the subject 
of the verb. These different forms of the verb may 
be called Person-and-Ntjmber-Forms. 

278. Person. — With the personal pronouns of the 

three persons we commonly use, in the present singular, 

three different forms of the verb; but in the preterit the 

third person always has the same form as the first person. 

Ex. I row ; thou rowest ; he rows. [Present.] 

I rowed ; thou rowedst ; he rowed. [Preterit. ] 

But in the plural the verb has the same form with 
all the persons. 

Ex. We row ; you row; they row. 

279. Number. — The forms of the verb which go 
with thou and you are different, except in the subjunc- 
tive mode. 

Ex. Thou ivritest ; you write. 

So, also, are the present-tense forms which are used 
with singular and plural subjects of the third person. 
Ex. He (or man) dies ; they (or men) die. 

But the singular and plural forms of the preterit are 
alike. 

Ex. He died ; they died. 

In the first person, the same form is used for both 
numbers. 

Ex. I listen ; we listen. 

280. The only exception is the irregular verb be, 

which has a form for its three plural persons different 

from any of those used in the singular. 

Ex. I am,' we or you or they are. 

I was ; we or you or they were. 



VERBS. 113 

281. Two Forms of the Third Person Singular. — 

When the subject of a verb in the present tense is a 
singular noun or pronoun of the third person, the 
verbal form is made by adding s or es to the root. In 
old-style English, a form ending in th or eth is often 
used. 

Ex. The wind bloics ; or the wind bloweth. 
It does ; or it doth. 

Exercise 71. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

Write the verbal forms of the present tense which are used with the 
subjects 7, thou, he, they. 

Ex. I go ; thou goest ; he goes or goeth ; they go. 
Work ; begin ; wait ; come ; build ; speak ; see ; read ; sing ; 
say ; touch ; run ; deny ; flee ; laugh. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

282. These three forms of inflection are all that the 
verb has in English ; but there are certain other deriva- 
tive words, made from almost every verb in the lan- 
guage, which are commonly given along with the tense 
and mode forms, as a part of the conjugation of the 
verb, because they are used in making the compound 
tenses or verb -phrases. They are not really verbs, be- 
cause they do not assert anything ; they are only nouns 
and adjectives derived from the verb. They are called 
Infinitives and Participles. 

283. The Infinitives. — The Infinitives are verbal 
nouns. They express in noun-form the act or state 
which the verb asserts. 

For example, ' he gives ' expresses an assertion, declar- 



114 VERBS. 

ing some one to be the doer of an action. The action 
itself is expressed by giving or to give. Since these 
expressions are the names for the action, they are 
nouns, and so may be used as the subjects or the objects 
of a verb. 

Ex. Giving is better than receiving. ) 

To give is better than to receive. ) ^ 
He likes giving. •> 
He likes to give. \ J 

284. The Participles. — The Participles are ver- 
bal adjectives. They are descriptive words, used to 
qualify nouns, as other adjectives do. For example, 
the person who gives may be described as a giving per- 
son, and what he gives as a given thing. 

285. Relation of Infinitives and Participles to the 
Verb. — It must be remembered that the infinitives and 
participles are not true verbal forms, but are simply 
derived from the verb, as the nouns giver and gift are. 
The derivative nouns and adjectives which we call in- 
finitives and participles, however, have certain uses dif- 
ferent from those of other nouns and adjectives, and like 
those of the verb. 

Qa) The infinitives and participles may be followed 
by objects, direct and indirect. 

Ex. To give him his freed om was a grand act. 
Giving her a smile, he passed on. 

(6) They may take the same limiting words as the 
verb does. 

Ex. Children walking in the park always stop to see the swans. 
[Adverbial phrase telling where. ~\ 
To walk in the park is pleasant. 



VERBS. 115 

(e) They may be qualified by adverbs. 

Ex. To give early is to give twice. 

Giving gladly is better than hoarding. 
Money freely given was gratefully received. 

286. Meaning of Infinitive. — The word Infini- 
tive means something like 6 unlimited, indefinite' We 
have in the infinitives the general idea of an act or 
state, but it is not limited to a particular person and 
number, as in the true inflectional forms of the verb. 

287. The Root-Infinitive. — There are two infini- 
tives. One has the same form as the root of the verb, 
or the imperative, or (except in the verb be') the first 
person of the present indicative. It is called the Root- 
Infinitive or simply The Infinitive. 

Ex. Go; see; walk; love; give. 

It often has the preposition to put before it as its sign. 
Ex. To go ; to see, etc. 

288. The Participial Infinitive. — The second in- 
finitive is formed by adding ing. It is sometimes called 
the Infinitive in ing, or the Gerund, but more com- 
monly the Participial Infinitive, because it is, in 
form, exactly like one of the participles. 

Ex. Going ; seeing; walking; loving. 

There is pleasure in seeing plants grow. 
Walking is good exercise. 

289. Meaning- of Participle. — The word Parti- 
ciple means ' participating, sharing' The participles, 
while really adjectives, share also in the constructions 
of verbs. 

290. The Present Participle. — There are two par- 
ticiples. The Present Participle, like the particip- 



116 VERBS. 

ial infinitive, ends in ing. As the name implies, it 
commonly denotes present action. In order to distin- 
guish the present participle from the participial infini- 
tive, we must remember that the former is used in the 
sense of an adjective, and the latter in the sense of a 
noun. 

Ex. People living in cities long for a quiet country home. 
[Present participle.] 
He finds no joy in living. [Participial infinitive.] 

291. The Past Participle. — The second participle 
has a variety of endings — d or t or n, or none at all. 

Ex. Loved, from love ; burnt, from burn ; given, from give ; 
hurt, from hurt. 

It is commonly called the Past Participle, because 
it usually belongs to past time. It is also called the 
Passive Participle, because it denotes completed action 
as a result of suffering or enduring the action expressed 
by the verb, and so cannot, like the present participle, 
take an object. For example, 'a child taught' has 
undergone the process of teaching ; ' a man killed ' has 
suffered the act of killing. 

292. Participles Used like Ordinary Adjectives. — 

In the chapter on Adjectives [242 c?], we noticed that 
both the present and the past participle may be used 
like ordinary adjectives, without seeming to share in 
the nature of verbs. Sometimes the participle is placed 
directly before the noun which it qualifies, and some- 
times it is used as a predicate adjective. 

Ex. She has charming manners. 

No sound broke the charmed silence. 
The music was charming. 



VERBS. 117 

293. Participles used as Nouns. — Like ordinary 
adjectives, the participles may be used as nouns. 

Ex. Why seek ye the living among the dead? 
They spoke of the loved and lost. 

Exercise 72. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

Point out and name the infinitives and participles. 

1. We noticed a little church standing near the road. 2. Xoth- 
ing is more tiresome than standing. 3. The young bird was too 
weak to stand. 4. It is human nature to take delight in exciting 
admiration. 5. Drawing and painting taught without extra charge. 
6. The professor will teach us to draw. 7. Drawing a hasty 
sketch, he set us the task of copying it. 8. The design, drawm 
and painted by hand, was copied on each piece of china. 9. Seeing 
is believing. 10. Seeing a crowd in the street, he ran to the door. 
11. The face, once seen, is never forgotten. 12. The 17th of 
June saw the New England colonies standing here, side by side, 
to triumph or to fall together. 13. In fancy I see the farmers 
chasing the red-coats down the lane, pausing only to fire and load. 

14. Still achieving, still pursuing, learn to labor and to wait. 

15. Then came the queen, drest in white, drawn in a cart, accom- 
panied by a priest, and escorted by soldiers. 16. Flocks of little 
birds, wheeling around the lighthouse, blinded and maddened by 
the light, dash themselves to death against the glass. 17. Taught 
by that Power thfit pities me, I learn to pity them. 18. They had 
exercises in running, wrestling, and playing ball. 19. To waste 
in youth is to want in age. 20. Great skill was shown by the 
Egyptians in cutting and polishing these huge stones. 

Exercise 73. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

Write sentences containing the infinitives and participles of the 
following verbs : — 

Hear; play; save; pass; carry; shoot; engrave. 



118 VERBS. 

Exercise 74. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Explain the use of the participles in the following sentences: — 

1. AVhat an interesting lecture! 2. He spoke for an hour, 
deeply interesting his hearers. 3. The injured, four in number, 
were taken to a neighboring farmhouse. 4. The injured arm was 
bandaged. 5. The clock, injured in moving, no longer strikes. 
6. Nothing was left but a heap of smoking ruins. 7. The guide, 
smoking a long pipe, led the way. 8. Facts learned in youth are 
often remembered in age. 9. He had correspondents among the 
learned of all nations. 10. He is a learned man, but not a wise 
one. 11. Hearing a noise, the children were frightened. 12. The 
hearing ear and the seeing eye are alike wonderful. 13. We gain 
much from the society of the refined and cultured. 14. America 
is a refuge for the suffering and oppressed. 15. There is a splen- 
did ship, gliding over the unruffled waters. 16. Camels crossing 
the desert go many days without water. 17. Blessed are the 
meek. 18. Blest with a fine climate and a fertile soil, the state 
has a magnificent future. 19. To-day the living ask thy aid. 
20. Sweeping and eddying through them, rose the belated tide. 

CONJUGATIONS. 

294. Two Classes of Verbs. — There are two princi- 
pal ways in which verbs form the preterit tense and the 
past participle from the root or simplest form of the 
verb. According as they follow one or the other of 
these ways, English verbs are divided into two great 
classes, called Conjugations, because they are unlike 
each other in their manner of inflection or conjugation. 

295. The New Conjugation. — Verbs of the first 
class regularly form their preterit tense and the past 
participle, both alike, by adding ed or d to the root of 
the verb. 

Ex. Wish, wished, wished ; love, loved, loved. 



VERBS. 119 

These verbs belong to the New Conjugation. It 
is often called also the Weak or the Regular Con- 
jugation. 

296. The Old Conjugation. — Verbs of the second 
class regularly form their preterit by a change in the 
vowel of the root, without any added ending, and their 
past participle by adding en or n. The vowel of the 
participle is either the same as that of the root, or the 
same as that of the preterit, or else different from either. 

Ex. Give, gave, given; speak, spoke, spoken; fly, flew, flown. 

These verbs belong to the Old Conjugation. Its 
other names are the Strong and the Irregular Con- 
jugation. 

297. Principal Parts. — In both conjugations the 
simple form which we call the root is used for the infini- 
tive, the imperative, the present subjunctive, and the 
plural and first person singular of the present indica- 
tive. The present participal and participial infinitive 
differ from them only by adding ing\ We need to 
know, therefore, only the infinitive, the preterit, and the 
past participle, in order to understand the whole inflec- 
tion of any verb. Hence these three are called the Prin- 
cipal Parts, and in describing any verb they are given. 

298. Regular Verbs. — The following models show 
all the forms of two regular verbs, one from each con- 
jugation. By ' regular ' verbs we mean here those which 
follow closely the general rule of formations for the 
class to which they belong. In both classes are found 
verbs which depart more or less from this rule of 
formation. Sometimes the irregularity is so great that 
we might be in doubt as to whether the verb belongs to 
one or the other class. 



120 



VERBS. 



299. I. NEW CONJUGATION. 

Root, row. Prin. Parts, row, rowed, rowed. 



Sing. 



Pers. 

1. I row 

2. thou rowest 

3. he (she, it) rows, roweth 



INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 
Pers. 



Plu. 

1. we row 

2. you (ye) row 

3. they row 



Pers. Sing. 

1. I rowed 

2. thou rowedst 

3. he (she, it) rowed 



Preterit Tense. 
Pers. 



Plu. 

1. we rowed 

2. you (ye) rowed 

3. they rowed 



Pers. Sing. 

1. (if) I row 

2. (if) thou row 

3. (if) he (she, it) row 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 
Pers. 



Plu. 

1. (if) we row 

2. (if) you (ye) row 

3. (if) they row 



Pers. Sing. 

1. (if) I rowed 

2. (if) thou rowed 

3. (if) he (she, it) rowed 



Preterit Tense 
Pers. 



Plu. 

1. (if) we rowed 

2. (if) you (ye) rowed 

3. (if) they rowed 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 
Sing., row or row thou Plu. 



row or row ye 



INFINITIVES. 
Root Infinitive, row or to row- 
Participial Infinitive, rowing 



PARTICIPLES. 
Present Participle, rowing 
Past Participle, rowed 



300. Number of Verbal Forms. — It will be seen 
from the model that the regular verb of the New Conju- 
gation has, including participles, only six different forms : 
namely, row, rowest, rows (or roweth), rowed, 

ROWEDST. ROWISTO. 



VERBS. 


301. II. OLD CONJUGATION. 


Root, give. Prin. Parts, give, gave, given. 


INDICATIVE MODE. 


Present Tense. 


Pers. Sing. 


Pers. Phi. 


1. I give 


1. we give 


2. thou givest 


2. you (ye) give 


3. he (she, it) gives, giveth 


3. they give 


Preterit Tense. 


Pers. Sing. 


Pers. Phi. 


1. I gave 


1. we gave 


2. thou gavest 


2. you (ye) gave 


3. he (she, it) gave 


3. they gave. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 


Present Tense 


Pers. Sing. 


Pers. Phi. 


1. (if) I give 


1. (if) we give 


2. (if) thou give 


2. (if) you (ye) give 


3. (if) he (she, it) give 


3. (if) they give 


Preterit Tense. 


Pers. Sing. 


Pers. Phi. 


1. (if) I gave 


1. (if) we gave 


2. (if) thou gave 


2. (if) you (ye) gave 


3. (if) he (she, it) gave 


3. (if) they gave 



121 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 
Sing., give or give thou Plu., give or give ye 



INFINITIVES. 

Root Infinitive, give or to give 
Participial Infinitive, giving 



PARTICIPLES. 
Present Participle, giving 
Past Participle, given 



302. Number of Verbal Forms. — The regular verb 
of the Old Conjugation has, including participles, seven 
different forms : namely, give, givest, gives (or giv- 
eth), GAVE, GAVEST, GIVING, GIVEN. 



122 VERBS. 

VERBS OF THE NEW CONJUGATION. 

303. Signs of the New Conjugation. — The regular 
verbs of the New Conjugation form their preterit 
and their past participle alike by adding ed or d to the 
root or infinitive. In ordinary use, this ending makes 
another syllable only when the root ends with a d sound 
or a t sound. 

Ex. Waited, united, loaded, degraded. 

304. In poetry and in a solemn style of reading or 
speaking, the ed is sometimes sounded as a separate 
syllable after all roots. 

Ex. "Yet shall the blue-eyed gentian look 
Through fringed lids to heaven." 

305. The added d is sounded like t, if the root ends 
in the sound of k, p, th as in thin, f, s (including x), or 
sh (including ch). 

Ex. Baked, piqued, hoped, betj^othed, fifed, paragraphed, laughed, 
chased, raced, vexed, wished, hatched. 

IRREGULARITIES OF THIS CONJUGATION. 

306. 1. Verbs which may take as an ending- either 
ed or t. 

Of these there are the following groups : — 

(a) Some verbs in which the d is pronounced like t. 

Ex. Dress, dressed or drest ; bless, blessed or blest; pass, passed 
or past. 

(5) Some verbs which have 1 or n as the final letter 
of the root. 

Ex. Learn, learned, learnt ; spoil, spoiled, spoilt. 
Other verbs of this group are burn, smell, dwell, spell, spill, and 
pen (meaning * confine '). 



VERBS. 123 

(c) Some verbs which have the root ending in d after 
1, n, or r. 

Ex. Build, builded or built ; rend, vended or rent; gird, girded 
or girt ; gild, gilded or gilt ; bend, bended or bent. 

Three such verbs, lend, send, and spend, take the 
irregular form only; lent, but not lended, etc. 

307. 2. Verbs which change the sound of the 
vowel in the root. 

The groups are as follows : — 

(a) Those verbs which shorten the vowel and add t 
as an ending. 

Ex. Feel, felt; mean, meant; keep, kept. 

Other examples are deal, creep, sleep, sweep, weep. 

A few others, kneel, leap, lean, and dream, have either 
the regular or the irregular form; dream, dreamed or 
dreamt, etc. 

(J) A few verbs which change a final v or z sound of 
the root to f and s respectively, before add- 
ing t. 

Ex. Leave, left; lose, lost; cleave (' split '), cleft (or pret. clove, 
part, cloven) ; bereave, bereft (or bereaved) ; reave, reft 
(almost obsolete). 

Cleave ('adhere') is regular, though clave is some- 
times found used in the preterit. 

(e) A few verbs which shorten the sound of the final 
vowel of the root, and add the ending d. 

Ex. Flee, fled ; say, said ; shoe, shod. 

Hear, heard is somewhat like this last group. 



124 VERBS. 

(c?) Some verbs, all of which formerly ended in a k or 
a g-sound, and which change the vowel and tinal 
consonants into the sound aught. 

Ex. Beseech, besought ; buy, bought ; bring, brought 
Other examples are seek, catch, teach, think. 

Work, wrought takes also the regular ending in ed. 

308. 3. Verbs which take no added ending". 

The groups are as follows : — 

(a) Verbs with roots ending in d or t after a long vowel, 
which shorten the vowel without taking any 
ending. 

Ex. Feed, fed ; shoot, shot; lead, led. 

Other examples are bleed, breed, speed, read, meet. 

Light, lit takes also the regular form lighted. 

(&) Verbs, the roots of which end in d or t, and which 
make no change at all. . The list is as follows : — 



burst 


hit 


put 


shed 


spit 


thrust 


cast 


hurt 


quit 


shred 


split 


wet 


cost 


knit 


rid 


shut 


spread 


whet 


cut 


let 


set 


slit 


sweat 





A few of these, knit, quit, sweat, wet, and whet, take 
also the regular form in ed; and with spit the past 
spat was formerly used. 

309. 4. Miscellaneous Irregularities. 

(a) Sell, sold ; tell, told. 

(J) Save, had ; make, made ; clothe, clad (or clothed}. 
(e) Dare, past durst (or dared), participle dared. 
(d) A few verbs have irregularities in tense-inflection. 
Have is irregular in the present singular; I have, 
thou hast, he has. 



VERBS. 125 

Need uses either needs or need in the third singular 

present. 
Dare has the same irregularity as need ; and does 

not add st for the second person singular. I 

durst, thou durst — not durstest. 

Exercise 75. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Write the principal parts of the following verbs : — 

Feel; cast; flee; dream; spoil; lose; light; beseech; gild; pass; 
creep; send; leave; work; shoot; let; burn; kneel; lead; cleave 
(' adhere '). 

Exercise 76. 

VERBAL FORMS. 

According to Model /., write all the different verbal forms of each 
of the following : — 

Walk ; rob ; love ; wait ; believe ; wish ; live ; plan ; seem ; listen. 

Exercise 77. 

INFLECTION. 

Inflect the present indicative of seek ; build; tell; keep; spend. 
The preterit indicative of leap ; bless ; learn ; catch ; dwell. 
The present subjunctive of say ; learn ; think ; have ; read. 
The preterit subjunctive of love ; make ; lead ; lose ; hear. 
Give the infinitives and participles of shred ; cost ; bleed ; work ; 
bereave. 

VERBS OF THE OLD CONJUGATION. 

310. Marks of This Conjugation. — Regular verbs 
of the Old Conjugation have these three marks : — 

1. They change the vowel of the root, either in the 

preterit, or in the past participle, or in both. 

2. They take no added ending in the preterit. 

3. The ending of the participle, if it have any, is n. 



126 VERBS. 

311. Irregularities of the Old Conjugation. — 

With the growth of our language, so many changes 

have been made in the verbs of the Old Conjugation 

that it is hard to classify them in their present form. 

There has been a tendency to change the vowel, either 

of the preterit or of the participle, so as to make the 

two forms agree. Besides, the n or en, which was 

formerly the ending of the participles of all these verbs, 

is now lost in many of them, and either kept or left off 

at will in others. Some verbs which were formerly of 

the Old Conjugation now either sometimes or always 

make a part of their forms according to the New. 

Ex. Cleave (to split), clave {clove or cleft), cloven (or cleft) ; 
cleave, cleaved, cleaved. 

312. Groups of Verbs. — Because of these great 
changes, we do not try to classify these verbs strictly, 
as regular and irregular, but merely group together those 
which, as we use them now, are, on the whole, most alike 
in their inflection. 

The following are the principal groups : — 

313. Group 1. — Sing, sang, sung. 

Like this are ring, spring, swim, stink, begin. 

(a) Drink, shrink, sink have two forms each for the parti- 
ciple — drunk, shrunk, sunk and drunken, shrunken, 
sunken — the latter used chiefly as adjectives. 

All these verbs sometimes form their preterit like the 
participle. 

Ex. Sung, sunk, swum. 

(6) Some verbs have been changed like spin. Its parts 
were formerly spin, span, spun, but the old pret- 
erit has gone out of use, and we have now spin, 
spun, spun. 



VERBS. 127 

Like this are cling, sling, fling, sting, string, swing, 
wring, sli?ik, and ivin (won). 

(e) In run, ran, run the participle is like the present. 

314. Group 2. — Bind, bound, bound. 
Like this are find, grind, wind. 
Nearly like it is fight, fought, fought. 

Fraught, from freight, is now used only as an adjec- 
tive. 

315. Group 3. — Speak, spoke, spoken. Preterit 
changed from spake. 

Like this are break, swear, wear, tear, bear (participle 
born or borne). 

Nearly like these, as now conjugated, are steal, weave, 
tread. 

(a) Cret, beget, forget once had a as the vowel of the 

preterit. Now, get, got, gotten (or got), etc. 

(b) Heave and shear, usually of the New Conjugation, 

have also, one an Old preterit, hove, and the other 
an Old participle, shorn. 

316. Group 4. — Give, gave, given. 

A few verbs follow irregularly this model. Those 
most like it are bid, bade (or bid), bidden ; eat, ate (or 
eat), eaten; see, saw, seen. 

More irregular still are beat, beat, beaten; lie, lay, 
lain; sit, sat, sat. 

317. Group 5. — Take, took, taken. 
Like this are shake and forsake. 

Somewhat like it are draw, drew, drawn; slay, slew, 
slain ; also stand, stood, stood, which formerly had a 
participle differing from the preterit. 



128 VERBS. 

(a) Wake and awake either take the preterit tenses 
woke and awoke, or else follow the New Conju- 
gation — waked, awaked (or awakened'). 

Stave sometimes takes the preterit stove. Wax some- 
times has the participle waxen. 

318. Group 6. — Ride, rode, ridden. 

Like this are rise, stride, smite, write, drive, strive, and 
thrive, though the last follows also the New Conjugation 
— thrive, thrived, thrived. 

(a) Shine and abide, which were formerly of this group, 
now form the participle like the preterit — shone 
and abode; and shine is sometimes of the New 
Conjugation — shine, shined, sinned. 

319. Group 7. — Bite, bit, bitten. 
Like this are chide, hide, slide. 

320. Group 8. — Blow, blew, blown. 
Like this are grow, knoiv, throw. 
Somewhat like it is fly, flew, flown. 

321. Group 9. — Choose, chose, chosen. 

This is an example of a class of verbs that has nearly 
gone out of use. 

Somewhat like it are freeze, froze, frozen, and seethe, 
sod, sodden, though the latter is rare and commonly 
follows the New Conjugation. 

322. Group 10. — Sow, strow (or strew), and show 
are of the New Conjugation throughout, or else may 
make the participles sown, strown (or strewn), and shown. 

(a) Crow is either of the New Conjugation or makes 
the preterit crew. 



VERBS. 129 

323. Group 11. — Fall, fell, fallen; hold, held, 
holden (rare), or held. 

These two verbs form one class together, though they 
do not look alike. 

324. Group 12. — These four verbs may be classed 
together : — 

Dig, dug, dug (also of the New Conjugation) ; stick,: 
stuck, stuck ; strike, struck, struck (or stricken) ; hang, 
hung, hung (also of the New Conjugation). 

325. Not Classified. — Come, came, come; go, went, 
gone ; do, did, done. 

Went is properly the preterit of wend (like sent from 
send), which now, as a separate verb, has the regular 
preterit wended. 

Wit, with its present wot, its preterit wist, and no 
participle, is now nearly out of use. 

Quoth is a verb formerly much used, but now nearly 
obsolete. It is used only in the preterit, first and third 
persons, singular number. 

Ex. Quoth I ; quoth he. 

326. Be is made up of parts coming from several 
different roots, and is so irregular that its full conjuga- 
tion needs to be given. It is as follows : — 





Principal 


Parts, 


be, was, been. 






Present. 




INDICATIVE. 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 


1. 


am are 




1. be be 


2. 


art are 




2. be be 


3. 


is are 




3. be be 



130 VERBS. 



Preterit. 



INDICATIVE. 

1. was were 

2. wast (wert) were 

3. was "were 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

1. were were 

2. wert (were) were 

3. were were 



IMPERATIVE. 
Sing.,, be or be thou PZw., be or be ye 



INFINITIVES. 

be or to be, being 



PARTICIPLES. 

being, been 



Exercise 78. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Write the principal parts of the following verbs. 

Sow; see; chide; begin; wear; rise; crow; bid; grind; for- 
sake ; run ; shine ; hold ; rise ; dig ; tread ; thrive ; win ; know ; 
forget. 

Exercise 79. 

VERBAL FORMS. 

According to Model //., write all the different verbal forms of the 
following : — 

Sing ; bind ; speak ; sit ; take ; ride ; bite ; blow ; choose ; fall. 

Exercise 80. 

INFLECTION. 

Inflect the present indicative of smite ; slay ; fly ; spin ; sit. 
The preterit indicative of We (' recline'); go; tear; steal; drink. 
The present subjunctive of come; see; do; awake; speak. 
The preterit subjunctive of bid ; tread ; fight ; win ; beat. 
Give the infinitives and participles of do ; hold ; show ; sink ; 
hang. 



VERBS. 



131 



32 7. Alphabetical List of Irregular Verbs. — Be- 
low are given, in alphabetical order, the verbs of the 
Old Conjugation and the irregular verbs of the New, 
with reference from each to the paragraph where its 
conjugation is described. 



abide, 318 


crow, 322 


hear, 307 


read, 308 


awake, 317 


cut, 308 


heave, 315 


reave, 307 


be, 326 


dare, 309 


hide, 319 


rend, 306 


bear, 315 


deal, 307 


hit, 308 


rid, 308 


beat, 316 


dig, 324 


hold, 323 


ride, 318 


begin, 313 


do, 325 


hurt, 308 


ring, 313 


bend, 306 


draw, 317 


keep, 307 


rise, 318 


bereave, 307 


dream, 307 


kneel, 307 


run, 313 


beseech, 307 


drink, 313 


knit, 308 


say, 307 


bid, 316 


drive, 318 


know, 320 


see, 316 


bind, 314 


dwell, 306 


lead, 308 


seek, 307 


bite, 319 


eat, 316 


lean, 307 


seethe, 321 


bleed, 308 


fall, 323 


leap, 307 


sell, 309 


blow, 320 


feed, 308 


learn, 306 


send, 306 


break, 315 


feel, 307 


leave, 307 


set, 308 


breed, 308 


fight, 314 


lend, 306 


shake, 317 


bring, 307 


find, 314 


let, 308 


shall, 329 


build, 306 


flee, 307 


lie, 316 


shear, 315 


burn, 306 


fling/313 


light, 308 


shed, 308 


burst, 308 


fly, 320 


lose, 307 


shine, 318 


buy, 307 


forsake, 317 


make, 309 


shoe, 307 


can, 329 


freeze, 321 


may, 329 


shoot, 308 


cast, 308 


freight, 314 


mean, 307 


show, 322 


catch, 307 


get, 315 


meet, 308 


shred, 308 


chide, 319 


gild, 306 


mote, 329 


shrink, 313 


choose, 321 


gird, 306 


must, 329 


shut, 308 


cleave, 307, 311 


give, 316 


need, 309 


sing, 313 


cling, 313 


go, 325 


ought, 329 


sink, 313 


clothe, 309 


grind, 314 


pen, 306 


sit, 316 


come, 325 


grow, 320 


put, 308 


slay, 317 


cost, 308 


hang, 324 


quit, 308 


sleep, 307 


creep, 307 


have, 309 


quoth, 325 


slide, 319 



132 



VERBS. 



sling, 313 
slink, 313 
slit, 308 
smell, 306 
smite, 318 
sow, 322 
speak, 315 
speed, 308 
spell, 306 
spend, 306 
spill, 306 
spin, 313 
spit, 308 
split, 308 
spoil, 306 



spread, 308 
spring, 313 
stand, 317 
stave, 317 
steal, 315 
stick, 324 
sting, 313 
stink, 313 
stride, 318 
strike, 324 
string, 313 
strive, 318 
strow, -ew, 322 
swear, 315 
sweat, 308 



sweep, 307 
swim, 313 
swing, 313 
take, 317 
teach, 307 
tear, 315 
tell, 309 
think, 307 
thrive, 318 
throw, 320 
thrust, 308 
tread, 315 
wake, 317 
wax, 317 
wear, 315 



weave, 315 
weep, 307 
wend, 325 
wet, 308 
whet, 308 
will, 329 
win, 313 
wind, 314 
wit, 325 
work, 307 
wring, 313 
write, 318 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 

328. There are a few irregular verbs, chiefly used 
along with the infinitives and participles of other verbs, 
to form verb-phrases or " compound tenses," and hav- 
ing neither infinitives nor participles of their own. 
These are called the Auxiliary (or ' helping ') Verbs. 
They are may, can, shall, will, must, and ought. The verbs 
do, be, and have are used in much the same way, although 
they have infinitives and participles of their own. 

329. Forms of the Auxiliary Verbs. 

Second Person Singular. 



might, 

should, 

would, 



Present. 

Can, 

May, 

Shall, 

Will, 

Must, 

Ought, 

Be (am), was 
Do, did, 

Have, had, 



Past. Participle. 
could, 



Present. Past. 

thou canst, thou couldst. 

thou mayest (mayst), thou mightest. 



thou shalt, 

thou wilt, 

thou must. 

thou oughtest. 

been, thou art, 

done, thou dost (doest), 
had, thou hast, 



thou shouldst. 
thou wouldst. 



thou wast( wert). 
thou didst. 
thou hadst. 



VERBS. 133 

Must and ought were originally preterits. The old 
present of ought was owe ; that of must was mote. 

COMPOUND VERBAL FORMS. 

330. Verb-Phrases. — A Verb-Phrase is a com- 
pound of an infinitive or a participle with an auxiliary 
verb. It is intended to express some variation in time 
or manner that cannot be expressed by any of the 
simple or inflected forms of the verb. 

Ex. Wars shall cease. [The auxiliary shall and the infinitive 
cease combine to express the idea of future time.'] 
It has rained. [The auxiliary have and the past partici- 
ple of rain combine to express the idea of completed 
action.] 

i. EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES. 

331. In the conjugation of the verb, we learned 
that the form of the present tense, I row or / give, is 
used to express action in present time, and I rowed or 
I gave, to express action in past time. But there are 
other ways in which we may express the same difference 
of time. For example, we may say, / do roiv, I do give, 
I did row and / did give, and, in the imperative, Bo 
row and Do give, thus making the expression more em- 
phatic. Hence these verb-phrases are called Emphatic 
Verb-Phrases, or the Emphatic Present and Pret- 
erit Tenses of the verb. 

332. ^Negative and Interrogative Uses. — In ask- 
ing a question, we say Do I row? and Did I give? 
rather than Row I? and Grave I? In negative asser- 
tions, also, we commonly use do and did. 

Bx. 7" do not row, rather than I row not. 
I did not give, rather than / gave not. 



134 VERBS. 

333. Explanation of tlie Emphatic Verb-Phrase. 

— In such phrases as I do give and I did give, the word 
give is not the bare root of the word, but the infinitive 
without to. Just so we say, without using to, ' I see him 
give,' and with to, ' I wish him to give? The real verbs 
in these phrases are do and did. Give is the infinitive 
or verbal noun used as the object of these verbs. The 
phrase I do give means strictly, / do (or perform) an 
act of giving. 

Exercise 81. 

EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES. 

Point out and explain the emphatic verb-phrases, the negative and 
interrogative forms. 

1. And everybody praised the Duke, who this great fight did 
win. 2. When the fit was on him, I did mark how he did shake. 
3. Dost thou not know me? 4. I did not think to shed a tear. 
5. When she did speak, it was in her usual manner. 6. Do try 
to keep still. 7. The bells did so ring that they could not sleep. 
8. He does try to be quiet. 9. Do they not know this? 10. Do 
the Chinese read backwards? 11. He does not cheat, if they do 
say so. 12. There are places where the sun does shine in the 
night. 13. Do not aim to please yourself. 14. Dost thou love 
life, then do not squander time ; for that is the stuff life is made 
of. 15. Gentle Spring! in sunshine clad, well dost thou thy 
power display ! 

2. PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 

334. If we wish to speak of an action as continu- 
ing or in progress, we use such phrases as I am giving, 
I was giving. To make these phrases, we use be as an 
auxiliary, combining its present and preterit tenses with 
the present participle giving. Such phrases are called 
Progressive Verb-Phrases, or the Progressive 
Present and Preterit Tenses of the verb. 



VERBS. 135 

335. Explanation. — The real verbs in these phrases 
are am and was. The participle is used like a predicate 
adjective, qualifying the subject I, just as the adjectives ' 
generous and liberal qualify / in the sentences I am 
generous, I was liberal. 

ExERcrsE 82. 

PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 

Point out and explain the progressive verb-phrases. 

1. They are listening to the music. 2. Children are playing 
in the street. 3. Are the soldiers coming? 4. The stars are 
shining. 5. Is it not raining? 6. The flag is flying. 7. Bees 
were humming among the flowers. 8. Strange flower-like animals 
are growing in the depths of the sea. 9. A great eagle was soar- 
ing overhead. 10. The troops were marching towards Atlanta. 
11. I am waiting for the omnibus. 12. Who is winning the 
battle? 13. The leaves are falling. 14. The bell is tolling. 
15. The river was rising and overflowing its banks. 16. Some- 
where the birds are singing evermore. 

3. FUTURE-TENSE-PHRASES. 

336. If we wish to express the idea that something 
is to be done in time to come, we use as auxiliaries the 
present tenses of the verbs shall and will, putting as 
the object of these verbs the infinitive of the verb 
expressing the action. Since the phrase I shall (or 
will} give expresses action in future time, we may call 
it a Future Tense of the verb. 

337. Use of Shall and Will. — Shall means origi- 
nally 'owe, be under obligation'; will means 'wish, 
resolve, determine.' I shall "give means, then, 'I am 
bound or obliged to give ' ; and I will give means ' I 
intend or am determined to give.' Out of this differ- 



136 VERBS. 

ence in meaning has grown an intricate difference in 
use, for which we may give the following rules : — 

1. To predict that something will happen, use 

shall in the first person and will in the second and 
third. 

Ex. / shall return next Monday. You will be here to-morrow. 
He will be elected this year. 

2. To promise or to express Determination on the 

part of the speaker, use will in the first person and shall 
in the second and third. 

Ex. / will wait for you. You shall obey me. He shall repent 
of it. 

3. In asking Questions, use shall or will, according 
as one or the other is to be used in reply. 

Ex. Shall you stay? I think I shall, if I am asked. 
Will you stay ? I will stay, if I can help you. 

Will is not used in questions where the subject is of 
the first person. 

Ex. Shall I write ? not < Will I ' ? 

So, also, in reporting the statement of another per- 
son, we naturally use the auxiliaries as he used them. 

Ex. / shall expect you. She says she shall expect you. 
/ will not consent. You say you will not consent. 

Exercise 83. 

SHALL AND WILL. 

Explain the use of shall and will. 

1. Who will help us now? 2. The king will help us. 3. The 
children shall have a holiday. 4. I hope you will be happy. 
5. I shall be sorry to hear of his failure. 6. Shall we take & 



VERBS. 137 

walk? 7. Will you go with me? 8. I have sworn that I will 
not go back until he shall grant my request. 9. He wishes to 
know if you will answer the letter, or if he shall. 10. How shall 
I endure the suspense? 11. He asks how he shall endure it. 
12. Stay and I will return with you. 13. Shall the wicked be 
honored like the good ? 14. You shall see the general to-morrow, 
and he will give you your orders. 15. Thou shalt never see my 
face again. 

4. CONDITIONAL VERB-PHRASES. 

338. Should and would, the preterit tenses of shall 
and will, form with the infinitives phrases which may 
be used to make a conditional statement; that is, one 
which depends upon a condition. They are, therefore, 
called Conditional Verb-Phrases. 

Ex. I should go (if I could get away). 

He ivould give (if he had the means) . 

Often the phrase expresses the condition itself. 
Ex. If it should rain, we could not go. 

339. Use of Should and Would. — 1. The differ- 
ence between should and would is, in general, the same 
as that between shall and ivill ; but in expressing a con- 
dition, should may be used with all the persons. 

Ex. If 1 should take two and you should take five, and they 
should take three apiece, how many would be left? 

2. Should is sometimes used in the sense of ought, to 
express duty or obligation, and would in the sense of 
was determined or was in the habit of, to express purpose 
or custom. 

Ex. You should respect the aged. They should be grateful 
for it. 
He would go, in spite of the storm. The Greeks would 
offer sacrifices before giving battle. 



138 VERBS. 

340. Difference between the Future and the Con- 
ditional. — The Conditional has more the character of 
a Mode. Its difference from the future is much like 
the difference between the indicative and the subjunc- 
tive. Indeed, the conditional phrase is often used where 
the preterit subjunctive might be used instead. 

Ex. If I were so unlucky. [Sub j.]. If 1 should be so unlucky 
[Conditional] . 

Exercise 84. 

CONDITIONAL VERB-PHRASES. 

Point out and explain the conditional phrases. 

1. You would laugh if you should hear the story. 2. I should 
not wonder if he would come. 3. Should he succeed, he would 
be happy. 4. Grandmother would knit for hours at a time. 
5. She should not work so steadily. 6. If it would not be too 
much trouble, I should like to have you do an errand for me. 
7. If you should hear of a situation, I wish you would let me 
know. 8. He would have his own way. 9. I should be glad if 
it would stop raining. 10. If it should be cold, you would need 
your coat. 11. Why would he go to sea? 12. Why should he 
be blamed? 13. I asked her whether she should be at home, and 
she said she should be. 14. She said she would go, if it would 
please me. 15. We should strive to imitate what we most ad- 
mire in others. 16. The Indians would suddenly spring upon the 
little villages. 

5. PERFECT-TENSE-PHRASES. 

341. To express completed action, we use the verb 
have as an auxiliary, combining with its present and 
preterit tenses the past participle (sometimes called the 
perfect participle) of the verb denoting action. These 
phrases may be called the Perfect (or Complete) 
Tenses of the verb. 



VERBS. 139 

1. Perfect Tense. — (Sometimes called the Present 
Perfect.) To denote that an action is completed at 
present, we use have with the past participle. 

Ex. I have given him a dollar. He has thanked me for it. 

2. Pluperfect Tense. — (Sometimes called the Past 
Perfect.) To denote that an action was completed at 
some stated time in the past, we use had with the past 
participle. 

Ex. I had given it away before you came. 

3. Future Perfect Tense. — To speak of an action 
as completed at some future time, we use the future 
tense of the auxiliary, shall or will have, with the past 
participle. 

Ex. By next year I- shall have given five hundred dollars. 

342. Six Tenses of the Verb. — From the foregoing, 
it will be seen that we have six so-called Tenses of the 
verb: two which are made by inflection, the Present 
and the Preterit; and four others which are made by 
the use of auxiliaries, the Future, the Perfect, the 
Pluperfect, and the Future Perfect. 

Exercise 85. 

PERFECT-TENSE-PHRASES. 

Point out and explain the perfect-tense-phrases. 

1. It had snowed all night. 2. He has bought a farm. 3. Who 
has had my knife? 4. I have worked while they have rested. 
5. Shall they have fought in vain? 6. The army had lost a brave 
general. 7. You had sung the sc>ng. . 8. Hast thou not heard 
the command? 9. Ye will not have lived for naught. 10. The 
nation has increased in wealth and power. 11. Will he have 
returned by nine o'clock? 12. By that time, we shall have waited 



140 VERBS. 

four hours. 13. Hadst thou considered well before thou con- 
sentedst? 14. Who hath believed our report? 15. Wilt thou 
give heed to my warning? 16. We had had a long and stormy 
voyage. 

6. POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES. 

343. To express power, possibility, obligation, or ne- 
cessity, we use the auxiliaries may, can, must, and ought. 
together with the infinitive of some other verb. Such 
phrases are called Potential Verb-Phrases. 

344. Difference between May and Can. — May im- 
plies permission ; can implies ability. Both are generally 
used to denote present time. Might and could are used 
in a conditional sense. 

Ex. You may give the child a penny. 
You can write well if you try. 
You might go if I could spare you. 

345. Must and Ought. — Must and ought make 

phrases which may be called Obligative forms, because 

they imply obligation or necessity. Both are used only 

in the present tense. 

Ex. You must pay better attention. 
He ought not to say such things. 

Exercise 86. 

POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES. 

Point out and explain the potential verb-phrases. 

1. May T speak to my sister? 2. Can they speak French? 
3. You may speak if it is necessary. 4. You might recite "The 
Raven," if you could learn it in time. 5. We must work while 
the day lasts. 6. They. ought to know better. 7. You cannot 
learn German in one year. 8. Thou oughtest to have foreseen 
this. 9. Couldst thou know the whole truth, thou mightst not 
rejoice. 10. If he can play the violin, he may practise on mine. 



VERBS. 141 

11. We ought to have told him that he might use it whenever he 
could find time. 12. One may live as a conqueror, a king, or a 
magistrate; but he must die as a man. 13. Never put off: till 
to-morrow what you can do to-day. 

PERFECT AND PROGRESSIVE FORMS. 

346. 1. By adding the past participle of a verb to 
the conditional, potential, and obligative forms of the 
verb have, we may make the Conditional Perfect, 
Potential Perfect, and Obligative Perfect of 
that verb. 

Ex. 1 could have seen ; You may have thought ; He must have known. 

347. 2. By adding the present participle of a verb to 
the corresponding tense of the verb be, we may make 
the Progressive Conditional, Progressive Poten- 
tial, etc. 

Ex. I could he writing ; He should have been studying : You may 
be considering ; They ought to be working. 

348. 3. Infinitives and Participles. — In the same 
way the Infinitives and Participles may be com- 
bined with forms of be and have, as follows : — 

Root-Infinitive. Progressive Form. 

give or to give be giving or to be giving 

Perfect Infinitive. 
have given or to have given have been giving or to have 

been giving 

Participial Infinitive and Present 
Participle. 

giving (itself progressive) 

Perfect Participle. 
having given having been giving 

Past (or Passive) Participle. 

given being given 



142 



verbs- 



Exercise 87. 

VERB-PHRASES. 

Name and explain the verb-phrases. 

1. We might have walked. 2. You must have been dreaming. 
3. The tide must be falling. 4. He ought to have had help. 
5. They should be exercising. 6. The rose may have blossomed. 
7. Thou canst not have considered. 8. The wind must have blown. 
9. He could have been making his boat. 10. She should have 
told her mother. 11. What can you be thinking of? 12. Ought 
they to have been working? 13. We may have been giving too much 
time to the study. 14. If Persia had conquered, who would have 
governed Athens ? 

Exercise 88. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

Name and explain the infinitives and participles. 

1. He wishes to be going. 2. I shall be happy to accept the 
offer. 3. Having reached the brow of the hill, we turned to take 
a view. 4. He ought to have been preparing for college. 5. 
Having been waiting for such a chance, I was ready to start at 
once. 6. They expected to have met us last evening. 7. The 
meeting of these old soldiers was enough to have moved the sternest 
heart. 8. Being disturbed, the birds flew away. 9. The Ameri- 
can army, having destroyed Fort Erie, went into winter quarters, 
thus closing a brilliant campaign. 10. The mother was thought 
to be dying, with her children weeping around her. 11. Having 
been invited to sing, she begged to be excused. 

349. Synopsis of the Active Forms of the Verb. 

Koot, give. Principal Parts, give, gave, given. 





Tenses. 


Common Forms. 


Progressive Forms. 


Emphatic 
Forms. 




Pres. 


give 


am giving 


do give 


V 


Pret. 


gave 


was giving 


did give 


•<s> 


Fu. 


shall or will give 


shall or will be giving 




C 
.O 


Perf. 


have given 


have been giving 






Plu. 


had given 


had been giving 




Fu. Perf. 


shall or will have given 


shall or will have been 










giving 





VERBS. 



143 



SYNOPSIS OF THE ACTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. — Continued. 





Tenses. 


Common Forms. 


Progressive Forms. 


Emphatic 
Forms. 


6 

5 


Pres. 
Pret. 


give 
gave 


be giving 
were giving 


do give 
did give 


53 

•<s> 


Pres. 
Perf. 


should or would give 

should or would have 
given 


should or would be giv- 
ing 
should or would have 
been giving 




e 

1 


Pres. 
Past 
Perf. 

Plu. 

• 


may or can give 

might or could give 

may or can have given 

might or could have 
given 


may or can be giving 
might or could be giving 
may or can have been 

giving 

might or could have 

been giving 




e 

•I s 

o 


Pres. 
Perf. 


must or ought to give 

must or ought to have 
given 


must or ought to be giv- 
ing 
must or ought to have 
been giving 






Pres. 


give 


be giving 


do give, do 
be giving 



Root. 
Perf. 
Part. 



INFINITIVES. 



(to) give 

(to) have given 

giving 



(to) be giving 
(to) have been giving 




PARTICIPLES. 



giving 

having given 

given 



having been giving 
being given 



144 VERBS. 

7. PASSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 

350. If we wish to speak of a person or a thing as 
enduring or being the object of the action expressed by 
the verb, we make use of Passive Verb-Phrases. 
These are formed by putting the past (or passive) par- 
ticiple with the various forms, simple and compound, of 
the verb be. 

For example, instead of saying c You have sent him,' 
4 1 cannot persuade you,' ' They ought to have done it,' 
we may say He has been sent ; You cannot be 'persuaded ; 
It ought to have been done. 

351. Passive Conjugation. — These passive verb- 
phrases, taken together, make up what is called the 
Passive Conjugation of the verb, because by means 
of them we take what is the object of any verbal form 
in the ordinary (or active) conjugation, and turn it into 
a subject, representing it as enduring or suffering the 
action expressed by the verb. . 

Ex. Active : The servant has lighted the lamp. 

Passive : The lamp has been lighted by the servant. 

Exercise 89. 

PASSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 

Change the active forms to passive verb-phrases. 

1. Waving grain covers the fields. 2. We celebrate the day. 
3. Clouds have almost hidden the moon. 4. Shakespeare may 
have trodden this very street. 5. The flood must have carried 
away the bridge. 6. Ivy grew over the crumbling walls. 7. The 
Pilgrims founded a new nation. 8. The countess, is to give a 
reception. 9. Electricity can ring bells. 10. The English set- 
tled Virginia. 11. Historians say that Cartier discovered the St. 
Lawrence. 12. The father was to give his eldest son a watch. 
13. The rain has injured the crops. 14. You should have con- 
sulted my wishes. 



VERBS. 



146 



352. Synopsis of the Passive Forms of the Verh. 





Tenses. 


Common Forms. 


Progressive 
Forms. 


■5* 
•a 


Pres. 
Pret. 
Fu. 

Perf. 
Plu. 
Fu. Perf. 


am giveu 

was given 

shall or will be given 

have been given 

had been given 

shall or will have been given 


am being given 
was being given 


Subjunc- 
tive. 


Pres. 
Pret. 


be given 
were given 




g 8 


Pres. 
Perf. 


should or would be given 
should or would have been given 




=: 
C 


Pres. 
Past 
Perf. 
Plu. 


ma j' or can be given 

might or could be given 

may or can have been given 

might or could have been given 




8* 


Pres. 

Perf. 


must or ought to be given 
must or ought to have been given 




Imper- 
ative. 


Pres. 


be given 








INFINITIVE*. 






Root 
Perfect. 


(to) be given 
(to) have been given 












PARTICIPLES. 




Past 

Perfect 


given 
having been given 


being given 



146 VERBS. 

353. ^To Emphatic Forms. — Since the verb be, 
the auxiliary of the passive, has no Emphatic tense- 
forms, there are none in the passive conjugation. We 
say, for example, ; I am struck,' but never ' I do be 
struck.' 

354. Progressive Forms. — Within the last half- 
century there have come into common use Progres- 
sive forms for the present and preterit tenses of the 
indicative. By some, these are still regarded as bad 
English ; but they are used by many of the most care- 
ful writers and speakers. 

Ex. Active : They are building the house. They were printing 
the book. 
Passive : The house is being built. The book was being 
printed. 

355. Difference between Passive and Progressive 

Forms. — To make the Progressive forms of the 

Active Conjugation, we use the forms of be with the 

present participle, [rowing, giving] which marks a thing 

as itself acting. To make the Passive tenses, we use 

the same forms of be with the past or passive participle, 

[rowed, given"] which marks a thing as acted upon or 

enduring the action. 

Ex. Progressive .Active : They have been striking. 
Passive : They have been struck. 

356. Participles as Predicate Adjectives. — In both 
the passive and progressive forms the participle has the 
real value of a predicate adjective, describing or quali- 
fying the subject [46]. But we must not suppose 
that whenever the past participle is used with the verb 
be it makes a passive verb-phrase. Sometimes the par- 
ticiple does not seem to share in the nature of the verb, 



VERBS. 147 

but is used as a predicate adjective merely, and is parsed 
like any other adjective. In such cases, it does not help 
to make a passive phrase. 

Ex. He is fatigued. Here fatigued is simply a predicate adjec- 
tive, just as weary would be, if used in its place. 

357. How to Know Passive Verb-Phrases. — In 

order to tell whether the past participle with the verb 
be makes a passive verb-phrase, we must notice whether 
the participle denotes the receiving or enduring of the 
action ; that is, whether it is used in a passive sense. 
If it is, we can commonly change. the sentence to the 
active form. If the participle denotes simply condition, 
it must be used purely as an adjective. 

Ex. Passive: He was fatigued by his exertions. 
Active : His exertions fatigued him. 
Adjective : He was fatigued [that is, in a condition of 
fatigue]. 

358. Passive Phrases Made from Transitive Verbs. 

— Since in a passive verb-phrase the object of the action 
expressed by the verb is turned into a subject, passive 
phrases are regularly made only from transitive verbs. 
The subject of the active verb is the doer of the action ; 
the subject of the passive verb is the receiver of the 
action. 

359. Intransitive Verbs Made Passive. — Some- 
times the object of a preposition is made the subject of 
a passive verb-phrase, even when the verb in the sen- 
tence is intransitive. In such cases, the preposition is 
used as it it were an adverb qualifying the verb. 

Ex. Active : We must not look at the sun. 
Passive : The sun must not be looked (it. 



148 VERBS. 

360. Indirect Object Made the Subject. — Some- 
times the indirect object of a verb is made the subject 
of the passive verb-phrase. 

Ex. Active : They promised me a present. 
Passive : / was promised a present. 

Exercise 90. 

PASSIVE VERB-PHRASES, AND PARTICIPLES USED AS PRED- 
ICATE ADJECTIVES. 

Point out and explain the passive verb-phrases, and the participles 
used merely as predicate adjectives. 

1. Yon wonld be taught your dnty. 2. She was talked about. 
3. The very door-step is worn with my feet. 4. The coat is worn 
and faded. 5. The rabbits had been caught in traps. 6. He 
was refused the protection of the law. 7. The carriage has been 
sent for. 8. The house was deserted. 9. The dog is lost. 
10. These lessons must be learned in youth. 11. She is wedded ; 
her husband is banished. 12. They w 7 ere well laughed at. 13. The 
prisoner was being tried for murder. 14. Robert of Lincoln is 
gayly dressed. 15. Lost time cannot be recalled. 10. The ques- 
tion was being discussed. 17. The handles are carved. 18. They 
may have been carved by some Swiss peasant. 19. The general 
was given a reception. 20. That ought to have been thought of. 

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS ACCORDING TO FORM. 

301. Verbs, like nouns and adjectives, may be 
divided, according to their form, into Simple, Deriva- 
tive, and Compound. 

362. Simple Verbs. — Simple Verbs are such as 
be, go, sit, see, write. 

363. Derivative Verbs. — The most important classes 
of Derivative Verbs are the following : — 



VERBS. 149 

(a) Verbs derived by Suffixes from Adjectives 
or (rarely) from Nouns. 

en, broaden, harden, fatten, sicken, lengthen, frighten. 
ize, solemnize, humanize, brutalize, terrorize, authorize. 

(6) Verbs derived by Prefixes from other 
Verbs. 

a, awake, arise, arouse. 

for, forget, forgive, forbear. 

un, undo, unbind, unfasten. 

re, repay, return, recapture. 

be, befall, become, bespeak. 

mis, mistake, misspell, misbehave. 

dis, dislike, disown, displease. 

(<?) Verbs derived by Prefixes from Nouns and 
Adjectives. 

be, behead, belabor, benight, benumb, belittle, befoul. 

en or em, enthrone, endanger, encourage, embody, enlarge, ennoble. 

embitter. 
re, refresh, renew. 

(<l) Verbs derived by Both Prefixes and Suf- 
fixes. 

Ex. embolden, enlighten, dishearten. 

(e) Verbs derived from other Verbs by Vowel 
Changes. 

Ex. fell from fall : lay from lie: set from sit; drench from 
drink. 

364. Compound Verbs. — Compound Verbs are 
commonly made from simple verbs, by the use of Pre- 
fixes. 



150 VERBS. 

(a) Prefixes which are Prepositions with the 
value of Adverbs. 

fore, foresee, forbade, foretell. 

over, overspread , overturn, overlook, 

out, outwit, outnumber, outgrow. 

under, undergo, understand, undersell. 

up, uplift, upset, uphold. 

with, withstand, withhold, withdraw. 

(i) Prefixes which are Nouns and Adjectives. 

Ex. partake [to take part], browbeat, backslide, fulfil [to fill 
full], whitewash, backbite, hoodwink. 

365. Other Parts of Speech Turned into Verbs. — 

Many nouns and adjectives are turned into verbs, with- 
out any change in form, except sometimes a change in 
the final consonant. 

Ex. to throng or crowd a room. to black a shoe. 

to time a race. to beard or face a foe. 

to witness a will. to worship God. 

to brown a cake. to round an angle, 

to smooth a wrinkle. to lower a bucket, 

to halve an apple. to breathe a prayer, 

to shoe a horse. to word a letter. 

USES OF THE VERB. 

360. The Predicate of a Sentence. — No sentence 
can be made except by means of a verb, since the verb 
is the only part of speech that asserts or declares or 
predicates. All that is really needed besides the verb, 
to make a complete sentence, is the name of some per- 
son or thing, to stand as the subject of the verb. This 
name may be a noun, or its usual substitute, a pronoun ; 
or it may be some other part of speech, or a phrase, or a 
clause, used substantively [133]. We need now to notice 
how the subject and predicate are related to each other. 



VERBS. 151 

367. Government and Agreement. — We have 
learned [279] that the verb has two number-forms, one 
to be used with a singular subject, and the other with a 
plural subject. Sometimes these forms are different : for 
example, Man laughs, men laugh. Often they are pre- 
cisely alike : for example, I laugh, we laugh. As the dis- 
tinction of their use does not depend on anything in the 
meaning of the verb itself, but only on the kind of subject, 
we speak of the subject as directing or governing in the 
choice of number-forms. The subject being given, the 
verb is compelled to agree with it in respect to number. 

Again, the verb may have different forms for use with 
subjects of the first, second, and third persons ; and 
these forms we call the first, second, and third persons 
of the verb itself. For example, I laugh, thou laughest, 
he laughs. Here, again, it is the subject that governs 
the choice, and the verb must agree in person with its 
subject. It follows, then, that a verb must agree with 
its subject in both person and number. 

368. Verbs Used Impersonally. — Verbs used with 
the subject it, not referring to any definite actor, but 
helping to express the idea that some action or process 
is going on, are called Impersonal Verbs, or are said 
to be used Impersonally. [163 />.] 

Ex. It is growing cold. It trill fare ill with kirn. 

369. Verbs Used Reflexively. — Sometimes the ob- 
ject of a verb denotes the same person or thing as the 
subject ; as, for example, / dressed myself. The verb is 
then said to be used Reflexively, the action being 
made to ' turn back ' upon the actor, instead of ' passing 
over,' transitively, to a different object ; as in the sen- 
tence, I dressed a doll. 



152 VERBS. 

370. Plural Verbs Used with Collective Nouns. — 

A plural verb is often used with a collective noun 
which is singular in form, when we have in mind the 
separate individuals composing the collection. 

Ex. The crowd throng the streets. 

The victorious crew are escorted home in triumph. 

371. Plural Verbs Used with Connected Subjects. 

— A plural verb is used with a subject made up of two 
or more words connected by the conjunction and, unless 
the words refer to the same person or thing, or are 
preceded by each, every, many a, or no. 

Ex. Mjj father and mother are here. 

The rich and the poor meet together. 

My friend and classmate goes with me to-day. 

Every day and every hour has its opportunities for good. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING VERBS. 

372. In parsing a simple verb, we have to tell 

1. The conjugation — whether old or new. 

2. Principal parts. 

3. Whether transitive or intransitive. 

4. Mode. 

5. Tense. 

6. Inflection of the tense. 

7. Person and number. 

8. Agreement with its subject. 

373. In parsing a verb-phrase, we have to tell 

1. The kind. 

2. The parts of which it is composed. (Auxiliary and 

infinitive or participle.) 

3. Its use. (For example, as the future tense of a verb.) 

4. Inflection of the tense. 



VERBS. 153 

The principal verb in the phrase may then be parsed 
by mentioning 

1. Conjugation. 

2. Principal parts. 

3. Whether transitive or intransitive. 

4. Person and number. 

5. Agreement with its subject. 

EXAMPLES. 

Think of the dangers to which he was exposed, and the priva- 
tions from which he must have suffered. Do you suppose that he 
forgets or ever can forget them? No : not if he live a hundred years. 

1. Think is an irregular verb of the New Conjugation. Princi- 
pal parts, think, thought, thought. Intransitive ; imperative mode ; 
present tense. Second person, either singular or plural number, 
to agree with its subject you, understood. 

2. Was exposed is a passive verb-phrase ; made up of the pret- 
erit tense of the verb be and the past participle of the verb expose, 
the two forming the passive preterit indicative of the verb expose. 

Inflected, etc. Expose is a regular verb of the New Conjugation. 
Principal parts, expose, exposed, exposed. Transitive; third person, 
singular number, to agree with the subject he. 

3. Must have suffered is a potential verb-phrase ; made up of the 
auxiliary must have and the past participle of the verb suffer, the 
two forming the obligative perfect of the verb suffer. Inflected, 
etc. 

The auxiliary must have is itself a verb-phrase, made up of the 
auxiliary must and the infinitive have, the two forming the obliga- 
tive present of the verb have. 

Suffer is a regular verb of the New Conjugation. Principal 
parts, suffer, suffered, suffered. Transitive ; third person, singular 
number, to agree with the subject he. 

4. Do suppose is an emphatic verb-phrase, used interrogatively; 
made up of the present tense of do and the infinitive of the verb 
suppose, the two forming the present interrogative indicative of the 
verb suppose. Inflected, etc. Suppose is a regular verb of the New 



154 VERBS. 

Conjugation. Principal parts, suppose, supposed, supposed. Transi- 
tive; second person, either singular or plural number, to agree 
with its subject you. 

5. Forgets is a regular verb of the Old Conjugation. Principal 
parts, forget, forgot, forgotten. Transitive ; indicative mode ; pres- 
ent tense. Inflected, etc. Third person, singular number, to agree 
with its subject lie. 

6. Can forget is a potential verb-phrase ; made up of the auxili- 
ary can and the infinitive of the verb forget, the two forming the 
present potential of the verb forget Inflected, etc. 

Forget is a verb, etc. 

7. Live is a regular verb of the New Conjugation. Principal 
parts, live, lived, lived. Intransitive ; subjunctive mode ; present 
tense. Inflected, etc. Third person, singular number, to agree 
with its subject he. 

Exercises for Parsing. 

1. We did not do these things in the good old days. 

2. Judges and senates have been bought for gold. 

3. She is reading about the coming of the king. 

4. If you would learn the value of money, go and try to borrow 
some. 

5. Milton ! thou shouldst be living at this hour. 

6. Who would be free, himself must strike the blow. 

7. If thou hadst said him nay, it had been sin. 

8. The Picts were never heard of in history after these great 
defeats. 

9. They feared that he might have been carried olf by gypsies. 

10. This work cannot be dispensed with by any book-lover. 

11. They shall pursue thee until thou perish. 

12. Knowledge and timber should not be too much used until 
they are seasoned. 

13. Chained in the market-place he stood. 

14. When I shall have brought them into the land, then will 
they turn to other gods. 

15. In 1805 the naval victory of Nelson at Trafalgar breaks the 
power of the French fleet. 

16. Men were grown impatient of reproof. 



VERBS. 155 

17. The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year. 

18. If the world be worth thy winning, 
Think, oh think it worth enjoying. 

19. The winds shall blow and the waves shall flow, 
And thou wilt be left alone. 

20. To me the meanest flower that blows can give 
Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears. 

21. Speak gently! let not harsh words mar 
The good we might do here. 

22. Plans and elevations of the palace have been made for them, 
and are now being engraved for the public. 

23. To thine own self be true, 

And it must follow, as the night the day, 
Thou canst not then be false to any man. 

24. Without the art of printing, we should now have had no 
learning at all ; for books would have perished faster than they 
could have been transcribed. 

25. When she had passed, it seemed like the ceasing of exquisite 
music. 

26. Oh, that men should jmt an enemy in their mouths, to steal 
away their brains ! 

27. If time be heavy on your hands, 
Are there no beggars at your gate ? 

28. Boys flying kites haul in their white-winged birds. 
You can't do that way when you're flying words. 

29. Thou stillest the raging of the sea. 

30. It had been anticipated that, while the other colonies would 
be terrified by the severity of the punishment inflicted on Massa- 
chusetts, the other seaports would be governed by a mere spirit of 
gain; and that, as Boston was now cut off from all commerce, the 
unexpected advantages which this blow on her was calculated to 
confer on other towns would be greedily enjoyed. 

31. So nigh is grandeur to our dust, 

So near is God to man, 
When Duty whispers low, " Than must" 
The youth replies, u 1 can." 



156 ADVERBS. 



CHAPTER VII. 

ADVERBS. 

374. An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb. 

Ex. He spoke truly. He is a truly wise man. That was very 

truly spoken. 

375. Classes of Adverbs. — There are many adverbs 
in English, and they have a great variety of meanings ; 
but for convenience they may be divided into the fol- 
lowing classes : - — 

1. Adverbs of Place and Motion, showing where ; 

in what direction. 

Ex. Here, there, yonder, below, above, in, out. 
Up, down, back, forward, hither, hence. 

2. Adverbs of Time and Succession, showing 

when ; in what order. 

Ex. Then, now, formerly, hereafter, always, often, seldom, never, 
soon . 
Next, once, twice, first, thirdly, fourthly . 

3. Adverbs of Manner and Quality, showing 

how ; in what manner. 

Ex. So, thus, somehow, otherwise, well, ill. 
Truly, foolishly, roundly, faithfully. 

4. Adverbs of Measure and Degree, showing 

how much; to what extent, 

Ex. Much, little, more, least, almost, all. 
Scarcely, quite, very, enough, greatly. 



ADVERBS. 157 

5. Modal Adverbs, or those which show that a 
statement is affirmative, or negative, or doubtful, or those 
which are used in reasoning. 

Ex. Surely, certainly, indeed; not, noways or nowise: perhaps, 
possibly, probably : hence, therefore, however, accordingly, 
consequently. 

376. The same adverb may belong to one or another 
of these classes according to its use and meaning in the 
sentence. 

Ex. Hold your pen so. [Manner.] 

Do not grasp it so tightly. [Degree.] 
I have a poor pen; so [consequently] I cannot write well. 
[Modal.] 

EXERCLSE 91. 

ADVERBS. 

Point out the adverbs, tell to which class they belong, and" what they 
modify. 

1. He spoke very clearly, but somewhat rapidly. 2. The river 
winds in and out among the rocks. 3. They formerly lived in 
England. 4. The letter was most formally written . 5. Summer 
is almost here. 6. That clock always runs too fast. 7. Probably 
they lived happily ever after. 8. The postman comes twice daily. 

9. Indeed I am not mistaken, however strange it may seem. 

10. So great a change was scarcely ever seen. 11. Consequently 
the new building will be on a far grander scale. 12. Ts that 
done well enough? 13. The queen was so highly pleased that she 
rewarded him handsomely. 14. Surely trouble conies soon enough. 
15. Go hence and disturb me no more. 16. Hence the area must 
be nearly one hundred square feet. 17. He was little inclined to 
talk about his adventures. 

377. Conjunctive Adverbs. — Adverbs may be di- 
vided, according to their use, into two classes : Simple 
and Conjunctive. Simple Advekbs merely modify. 



158 ADVERBS. 

but Conjunctive Adverbs not only modify, but con- 
nect. The same word may belong to either of these 
classes, according to its use in the sentence. 

Ex. When was war declared? [Simple Adverb of Time.] 

War was declared when the Americans had abandoned all 
hope of peace. 

[ When modifies was declared and had abandoned, and 
also connects the two sentences.] 

378. Clauses Introduced by Conjunctive Adverbs. 

— We have already learned, in the chapter on Pronouns, 
that the dependent part of a complex sentence may be 
either a noun clause or an adjective clause, introduced 
by a relative pronoun. In a similar way we may have 
complex sentences containing noun clauses, adjective 
clauses, or adverb clauses introduced by conjunctive 
adverbs. These adverbs not only modify some word or 
words, but they also connect the parts of the complex 
sentence. They are sometimes called Relative Ad- 
verbs. 

Ex. Noun Clause: Tell me why you were late. [Tell me 

what f] 
Adjective Clause : 1 saw the field where the battle was 

fought. [What field?] 
Adverb Clause: It happened when 1 was a child. [It 

happened when f] 

Exercise 92. 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

Point out and describe the dependent clauses. Tell what the con- 
junctive adverbs modify and what they connect. 

1. Show us how it is done. 2. This is the place where the 
hero fell. 3. T will come whenever you send for me. 4. Can 
you tell when Boston was founded? 5. He came from the land 



ADVERBS. 159 

where the orange grows. 6. The teacher smiled when he saw the 
picture. 7. Go wherever duty calls you. 8. Point out the place 
where the Romans landed in England. 9. Do you know why 
smoke rises ? 10. Forgive us as we forgive our enemies. 11. This 
is the season when the nights are longest. 12. Time flies when 
we are busy. 13. A ruined chimney shows where the old house 
stood. 14. They returned to the country whence they came. 
15. The frost must come before the nuts will be ripe. 16. The 
hall where the concert was held was some distance away. 17. How 
an acorn becomes an oak is a mystery of nature. 18. They started 
as the bells began to ring. 19. Who knows whither the clouds 
have fled? 20. Be useful where thou livest. 

379. Interrogative Adverbs. — A few adverbs, 
which are often used to introduce a question, may, 
ivhen so used, be called Interrogative Adverbs. 
They are hoiv, when, tvhy, where, whither, and whence. 

380. Use of There. — The adverb there sometimes 
has little or no idea of place. It is often used to intro- 
duce a sentence in which the verb comes before the 
subject. When so used, it is called an Expletive. 
because it is not necessary to the sense, but " fills up " 
the expression, so as to make it smooth. 

Ex. "There were giants in those days. There conies a time 
when we must die. 

381 . Adverb Phrases. — Many phrases are used with 
the value of simple adverbs, and may be parsed as such. 

Ex. By stealth, of yore, at random, at all. at once, at last, at least, 
in like manner, hi part, in short, in vain, in general, as yet, 
hy far, of old. of late. ere long, from far, on high, for good. 

382. Responsives. — The words yes, yea, no, nay, 
are used in responding to a question, and may be called 
Responsives. They were originally adverbs, but are 
not so used now, since thev do not modify other words, 



160 ADVERBS. 

but are in themselves complete answers, standing for a 
whole sentence. 

Ex. Are you frightened ? Yes. [I am frightened.] 

They are not "parts of speech," but are more like the 
interjections. 

INFLECTION. 

383. Adverbs have no inflection, except that a few 
have Comparison, like the adjectives. 

Ex. Soon, sooner, soonest ; often, oftener, oftenest. 

384. Adverbs of Quality, like the adjectives 
which are not compared, may be made to express de- 
grees of quality by the use of more and ?nost, less and 
least. 

Ex. Truly, more truly, most truly, less truly, least truly. 

385. Irregular Comparison. — A few adverbs, which 
are also used as adjectives, have also the same irregular 
comparison in either case. 

Ex. Ill, worse, worst; well, better, best ; much, more, most. [See 
211.] 

Exercise 93. 

ADVERBS AND ADVERB PHRASES. 

Explain the use of the adverbs and adverb phrases. 

1. He hardly breathed. 2. He breathed hard. 3. They 
waited in vain. 4. There shall be no night there. 5., Has he 
gone for good? Yes. 6. Herein lies the difficulty. 7. We know 
him of old. 8. Where is tin found? 9. The inhabitants are 
most degraded beings. 10. They are mostly savages. 11. How 
large is the country? 12. Why do you not think more carefully? 
13. They had been friends of yore. 14. There came a great 
storm. 15. The flag floats on high. 16. She was in nowise 
disturbed by the thought. 17. Thou knowest not now, but 
thou shalt know hereafter. 18. They were too weary to go on. 



ADVERBS. 161 

19. They were too much fatigued to travel. 20. The prisoners 
scarcely slept at all and ate almost no food. 21. When can you 
make the journey most comfortably and least expensively ? 

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM. 

386. Like the other parts of speech which we have 
studied, Adverbs may be, as to form, either Simple, 
Derivative, or Compound. 

387. Derivative Adverbs. — The following are the 
chief classes of Derivative Adverbs : — 

(a) Adverbs derived from Adjectives, by the 
Suffix ly. 

This is by far the largest class of adverbs. Most 
adjectives of quality and some others form adverbs in 
this way. 

Ex. Truly, clearly, hastily, wholly, splendidly. 

Adjectives ending in ble drop the le before adding ly. 

Ex. Able, ably: noble, nobly; terrible, terribly: respectable, 
respectably. 

Adjectives ending in ic change to ical before adding ly. 
Ex. Frantic, frantically ; graphic, graphically ; classic, classically. 

(6) Adverbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives, 
by the Suffix wise. 
These are sometimes regarded as compound words. 
Ex. /likewise, otherwise, crosswise, lengthwise. 

(<i) Adverbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives, 
by the Prefix a (usually meaning on). 

Ex. Aback, ahead, afoot, along, aright, abroad. 

(7/) Adverbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives, 
by the Prefix be (meaning by). 

Ex. Betimes, beside, beyond, between, before. 



162 ADVERBS. 

(e) Adverbs of Direction derived from other 
Adverbs (rarely from Nouns and Adjectives), 
by the Suffix ward or wards. 

Ex. Toward or towards, upwards, forward, afterward, homeward, 
southward, shoreward, heavenward. 

388. Compound Adverbs. — Compound Adverbs 
are mostly little phrases of two (rarely more) words 
which seem to have grown together into one. 

Ex. Always, already, almost ; somehow, sometimes ; henceforward. 

The following are two of the most common classes: — 

(a) Adverbs made by joining a Preposition with 
its Object. 

Ex. Indeed, overhead, beforehand, forever, erewhile. 

(5) Compounds of here, there, and where, with 
Prepositions. 

Ex. Herein (= in this) ; thereof (= of it) ; thereby (= by it) ; 
therewith (== with that) ; whereby (= by which) ; where, 
with (= with what); whereupon (— upon which). 

Exercise 94. 

DERIVATIVE AND COMPOUND ADVERBS. 

Explain the formation of the adverbs. 

Somewhat, anew, endwise, nowhere, daintily, abed, seaward, 
feebly, thereabout, afar, rustically, backward, also, wherever, hence- 
forth, peaceably, freshly, westward, underneath. 

389. Other Parts of Speech Used as Adverbs. 

(a) Prepositions. — Some of the simplest preposi- 
tions, such as m, on, off, up, to, were originally 
adverbs ; and most of them may still be used as 
such. 
Ex. He came in. It turned up. They passed by. 



ADVERBS. 163 

(//) Adjectives. — Some adjectives me used as adverbs 
without any change of form. 
Ex. Much, little, more, all, ill, fast, far. 

Sometimes the adjective form seems to be more forci- 
ble than the adverb. For example : w Do not speak so 
loud,' rather than w Do not speak so loudly.' 

In poetry, especially, the use of an adjective for an 
adverb, without any change of form, is very common. 

Ex. The birds sang clear. The listener scarce might know. 

Other adjectives are either turned into adverbs with- 
out change of form, or else take the ending ly, with a 
slight difference in meaning between the two forms. 

Ex. He came late. [After the appointed time.] 
lie has come lately. [Within a short time.] 

Other examples are even, evenly ; hard, hardly ; most, 
mostly ; sore, sorely. 

(c») Nouns. — A few nouns are used in the sense of 
adverbs. 
Ex. He went home. They turned back. The work is half done. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING ADVERBS. 

390. In parsing an adverb, we have to tell the class 
to which it belongs, to give its comparison, if it can be 
compared, and to tell what it modifies. 

EXAMPLES. 

It is certainly true that cert/ few birds of richly colored plumage 
are found here now. 

1. Certainly is a modal adverb, modifying the adjective tru&. 

2. Very is an adverb of degree, modifying the adjective few. 

3. Richly is an adverb of quality, modifying the adjective 
colored. 



164 ADVERBS. 

4. Here is an adverb of place, modifying the verb-phrase are 
found. 

5. Now is an adverb of time, modifying the verb-phrase are 
found. 

Exercises for Parsing. 

1. When the sun rose, the flag was still there. 

2. He liveth long who liveth well. 

3. Loud, without, the tempest thundered. 

4. They were sore afraid. Their faith was sorely tried. 

5. Words half reveal and half conceal the thought. 

6. 'Tis always morning somewhere in the world. 

7. Beauty is everywhere, if we will but look for it. 

8. There came a voice from heaven. 

9. Soft sighed the lute. 

10. The brook still flows seaward. 

11. He soon discovered his mistake, and acted accordingly. 

12. They were too much astonished to reply at once. 

13. In the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die. 

14. Slow and sure comes up the golden year. 

15. Since then, England and America have been at peace with 
each other. 

16. How will it be when the woods turn brown ? 

17. How r sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 

18. Wherewith shall I save Israel? 

19. Slowly ascending the stream, they came at length to an 
island where there was a little Indian village. 

20. Search was made here and elsewhere, but no trace of the 
wanderers was ever found. 

21. The twilight hours like birds flew by, 
As lightly and as free. 

22. Xext came a company of soldiers, gayly dressed and march- 
ing proudly along. 

23. Almost all men wall admit that they are almost never quite 
happy or wholly content. 

24. Many a shaft at random sent 
Finds mark the archer little meant. 

25. Probably if Queen Isabella had not sooji after died, he 
would have received the assistance he so humbly begged. 



ADVERBS. 165 

26. He who judges least, I think, 
Is he who judges best. 

27. No one who has once heartily and wholly laughed can be 
altogether and irreclaimably depraved. 

28. Dare to be true ; nothing can need a lie ; 

A fault which needs it most grows two thereby. 

29. Under God we are determined that wheresoever, whensoever, 
or howsoever we shall be called to make our exit, we shall die 
free men. 

30. I remember, I remember, 
The house where I was born ; 
The little window where the sun 
Came peeping in at morn. 

He never came a wink too soon, 
Nor brought too long a day. 

31. The greatest pleasure I know is to do a good action by stealth 
and to have it found out by accident. 

32. Come as the waves come when navies are stranded. 

33. They who live in history only 
Seemed to w r alk the earth again. 

34. Man wants but little here below, 
Nor wants that little long. 



166 PREPOSITIONS. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

391. A Preposition is a word used to connect other 
words and to show the relation between them. 

Ex. With, by, from, into. 

392. The Object of a Preposition, — A preposition 
is usually followed by a word which answers the ques- 
tion ' What?' or ' Whom?' and which is called the 
Object of the preposition. The object is commonly 
either a noun or a pronoun. 

Ex. I bought a box of paper. [A box of ichat f] 
I will give it to yon. [To whom f) 

But the object is not always a noun or a pronoun. It 
may be — 

(a) Ax Adverb. 

Ex. I had never tried until then. 

(V) An Adjective (used as a noun). 

Ex. Lift up your eyes on high. 

(c) An Infinitive. 

Ex. He delights in making photographs. 

((/) A Phrase. 

Ex. Wait till after the shower. 

(e) A Clause. 

Ex. Listen to ichat 1 say. 



PREPOSITIONS. 167 

393. Object Placed before the Preposition. — 

Sometimes, especially in poetry, the object is placed 
before, instead of after, the preposition. 
Ex. I'll sail the seas over. [Over the seas.] 

394. Prepositional Phrases. — A preposition to- 
gether with its object forms a Prepositional Phrase, 
which may be used like an adjective or an adverb to 
modify some other word in the sentence. The office of 
the preposition is to show how its object is related in 
idea to this other word. 

Ex. A house of stone stands by the river. 

The preposition of shows the relation between its 
object stone and the noun house, the prepositional phrase 
of stone having the force of an adjective describing 
house. 

The preposition by shows the relation between its 
object river and the verb stands, the phrase by the river 
having the force of an adverb telling where. 

395. Adjective Phrases. — The prepositional phrase 
may be called an Adjective Phrase whenever it 
limits a noun or a pronoun, thus having the value of an 
adjective. 

Ex. A block of wood. [= A wooden block.] 
Which of you did it. 

396. Adverb Phrases. — The prepositional phrase 
may be called an Adverb Phrase whenever it limits 
a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, thus having the value 
of an adverb. 

Ex. He went in haste. 

The pen is good for nothing. 

It is done sufficiently for the purpose. 



J 

168 PREPOSITIONS. 



Exercise 95. 

ADJECTIVE PHRASES AND ADVERB PHRASES. 

Point out the adjective phrases and the adverb i^hrases. Explain 
the use of each preposition. 

1. Flocks of birds are flying through the air. 2. Against the 
sky loomed the chimney of a factory. 3. A chain of steel fastened 
the bicycle to a post. 4. They stayed until night at the house of 
a friend. 5. In 1853, Turkey declared war against Russia. 6. In 
the spring, they sailed across the sea and found homes of peace 
and plenty in the New World. 7. Far out in the stream grew 
many water-lilies, with broad green leaves. 8. In the cold and 
darkness there went along the street a child of poverty. 9. A 
brigade of three Hessian regiments was stationed at Trenton. 
10. By his side stood a cabinet of ebony and silver. 11. In the 
morning a message was sent to the queen of England. 12. At 
ten o'clock, the people of Boston, with at least two thousand men 
from the country, assembled in the Old South Church. 

397. Phrases Used as Prepositions. — Certain 
phrases are used like simple prepositions, and may be 
parsed as such. 

Ex. Out of from out, as to, as for, on board of on this side, along 
side, in front of, in spite of by way of, by means of, because 
of, instead of in regard to, in respect of, for the sake of 
according to. 

398. Preposition at the End of a Sentence.— 

Sometimes the object of a preposition is placed before 
the verb, and the preposition itself at the end of the 
sentence. 

Ex. What did you come for? Whom (not icho) did you come 
with f 

It is better to avoid ending a sentence with a preposi- 
tion, if we can do so without making the construction 
weak or stiff and unnatural. 



PREPOSITIONS. 169 

For example, ' The paper on which 1 am writing,* is 
more elegant English than ' The paper I am writing on' 
We should not, however, sacrifice strength to elegance. 

399. Prepositions Used as Adverbs. — We have 
already learned [389 a] that some of the prepositions 
were originally adverbs, and may still be parsed as such. 
In some sentences, the object of the preposition is not 
expressed at all, and the preposition, itself is used with 
the verb or with the infinitive or participle, as if it were 
an adverb, or a part of the verb itself. 

Ex. You are a brighter lad than I took you for. 
Your case shall be attended to. 
It is a good horse to ride on. 
They are people worth speaking with. 
It is not worth laughing at. 

400. Prepositions Used as Conjunctions. — A prep- 
osition denoting time and governing a clause has nearly 
the value of a conjunction, connecting two clauses or 
sentences. 

Ex. Do not fire until I give the signal. He was here before I 
was. I stayed after he left. 

Exercise 96. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Explain the use of each preposition. 

1. They live in the village at the foot of the mountain. 2. We 
went down the river by night in a steamboat. 3. These trees are 
hoary with age. 4. You may look the whole world over. 5. He 
crept from behind the curtain. 6. The sauce is spiced too highly 
for my taste. 7. A row of maples stood in front of the house. 
8. What are you thinking of? 9. That case is disposed of. 
10. What did you ask for? 11. As for me, 1 shall go by way of 



170 PREPOSITIONS. 

New York. 12. Who among you will take heed? 13. Out of 
sight is out of mind. 14. These are facts worth thinking about. 
15. Do not come in before the bell rings. 16. Of what use are 
pins without heads ? 17. According to her story, she spends her 
time in studying music. 18. The enjoyment of the voyage de- 
pends upon whether you have good company. 19. Is it cold enough 
for snow? 20. Since then he has been free from pain. 

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM. 

401. Simple Prepositions. — The prepositions do 
not form a large class of words. The Simple Preposi- 
tions are the following: — 

At, after, against, but, by, down, ere, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, 
since, through, till, to, under, up, with. 

402. Derivative and Compound Prepositions. — 

The following are the classes of Derivative and Com- 
pound Prepositions : — 

(ff) Prepositions made from Adverbs and Other 
Prepositions. 

Ex. Into, unto, until, upon, underneath, before, behind, beyond, 
above, about, toward, iviihin, without, throughout. 

(J) Prepositions made from Nouns and Adjectives. 

Ex. Among or amongst, across, beside or besides, amid or amidst, 
along, athwart, aslant, around, below, between or betwixt, 
despite. 

(c) Prepositions made from Verbs. 

Ex. Save, saving, during, notwithstanding, touching, concerning, 
respecting, except or excepting, past. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING PREPOSITIONS. 

403. In parsing prepositions, we have only to state 
that the word is a preposition, and to point out its 
relation to other words in the sentence. 



PREPOSITIONS. 171 

Ex. The victorious array marched to York. ' 7 7? ' is a preposi- 
tion, and shows the relation between its object ' York ' 
and the verb 'marched.' The prepositional phrase * to 
York ' has the force of an adverb modifying l marched ' 
and telling where. 

Exercises for Parsing. 

1. He was annoyed past all endurance by the delay of the mail. 

2. At last they came to where the path ended. 

3. Despite all his efforts, the boat drifted down the stream. 

4. He went from here but a short time ago. 

5. According to promise, we were allowed to go on board of 
the steamer. 

6. And oft we trod a waste of pearly sands, 
Spotted with rosy shells, and thence looked in 
At caverns of the sea, whose rock-roofed halls 
Lay in blue twilight. 

7. My good friend the butler desired me, with a very grave 
face, not to venture in it after sunset, for that one of the footmen 
had been almost frightened out of his wits by a spirit that appeared 
to him in the shape of a black horse without a head. 

8. He is a careful observer of what goes on around him. 

9. Glorious indeed is the world of God around us. but more 
glorious is the world of God within us. 

10. There is no light in earth or heaven 
But the cold light of stars. 

11. Without boasting, we may say that America leads, in spite 
of her youth. 

12. The sun sets beyond the western sky, but the trail of light 
he leaves behind him guides the pilgrim to his distant home. 

13. From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 
Leaps the live thunder. 

14. The steed along the drawbridge flies. 

15. The highest fame was never reached except by what was 
aimed above it. 

16. Happy he with such a mother ! 

17. Under its benign influences these great interests awoke as 
from the dead. 



172 PREPOSITIONS. 

18. There's no dearth of kindness 

In this world of ours ; 
Only in our blindness 

We gather thorns for flowers. 

19. A few minutes after the trial ended, the drums were beating 
to arms in all sections ; at sunrise, the armed force was on foot. 

20. Till noon w T e quietly sailed on, 

Yet never a breeze did breathe ; 
Slowly and smoothly went the ship, 
Moved onward from beneath. 

21. During Queen Elizabeth's reign, great literary lights arose. 

22. There was one clear shining star that used to come out in 
the sky before the rest, near the church spire, above the graves. 

23. Winter is here in earnest. 

24. I want a congenial friend to talk with, to listen to, to find 
fault with, if I please. 

25. A single hay-cart down the dusty road 
Creaks slowly, with its driver fast asleep 
On the load's top. 

26. We of America have no patience with such notions. 

27. During our talk, she wept and bewailed that she had nothing 
to live for. 

28. The diamond is ground by means of its own powder. 

29. He had fixed upon an admirable place to dwell in. 

30. The first locomotive which ran over the road was built at 
Baltimore by Peter Cooper, since wddely known for his noble gift 
of the Cooper Institute to Xew York City. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 173 



CHAPTER IX. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

404. A Conjunction is a word used to join sen- 
tences or parts of sentences. 

Ex. And, but, for, nevertheless. 

405. Difference between Prepositions and Con- 
junctions. — Prepositions and conjunctions are both 
connectives, but of very different kinds. 

1. The usual office of the preposition is to connect 

words; that of the conjunction, to connect sen- 
tences. When a word which is commonly a prepo- 
sition is used to connect clauses or sentences, it is 
no longer a preposition, but a conjunction. 

Ex. Do not water the flowers until evening. [Preposition.] 

Do not water the flowers until the sun sets. [Conjunction.] 

2. The preposition commonly joins two words, one of 

which has an adjective or adverbial relation to the 
other. When a conjunction is used to connect 
words, it joins those which are in the same con- 
struction ; that is, those which are used alike in 
the sentence. 

406. Co-ordinate Words. — Words which are joined 
by conjunctions are said to be Co-ordinate; that is. 
4 of equal order or rank.' The following are the most 
common constructions : — 

(a) Two Subjects or Objects of the same Verb. 

Ex. He and 1 ran a race. 

They had lost home and friend .<. 



174 CONJUNCTIONS. 

(b) Adjectives or Adverbs qualifying the same 
Word. 

Ex. He is an honest but mistaken man. 

The picture is fading slowly but surely. 

(6) Prepositions having the same Object. 

Ex. I stated the reasons for and against the plan. 

(d) Two Verbs having the same Subject. 

Ex. We heard but refused the request. 

The conjunction may be here understood as connect- 
ing two sentences, of which the second has its subject 
' ice ' omitted. 

407. Two Classes of Conjunctions. — Conjunctions 
are divided, according to their use, into two classes, 
Co-ordinating and Subordinating Conjunctions. 

408. Co-ordinating Conjunctions. — Co-ORDINAT- 
ing Conjunctions are those that join words, phrases, 
or sentences of equal order or rank. The following are 
the principal groups : — 

(a) The Copulatives — those which simply couple or 
join. 
And is the one most often used. Others of this 
group are also, likeivise, eke, too, besides, moreover. 

(i) The Alternatives — those which imply a choice 
between two. 
Or is the best example. Others are either, else, neither, 
nor. 

(e) The Adversatives — those Avhieh imply some- 

thing opposed or adverse to what has been 
said. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 175 

But is the best example. Others are yet, however, 
still, only, nevertheless, notwithstanding. 

(d) The Causal Conjunctions — those which point 
out a reason or cause. 
For is the best example. With it may be classed 
therefore, hence, then, which connect a conclusion with 
the reason for it. 

409. Correlative Conjunctions. — Either and or, 
with their negatives, neither and nor, are called Cor- 
kelatives (having a mutual relation), because they 
are generally used in pairs, introducing the two alterna- 
tives. 

Ex. Either he must leave, or I shall go. 

Neither this man sinned, nor his parents. 

Other Correlatives are pairs of Copulative words 
or phrases. 

Ex. Both . . . and; at once . . . and: alike . . . and; not only . . . 
but also; as welt . . . as; what . . . what ; whether , . . or. 

Exercise 97. 

CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. 

Point out the co-ordinating conjunctions, tell to what (/roup they 
belong, and what, they connect. 

1. They were glad, yet they shed tears. 2. All boys are 
naturally mischievous; therefore these boys must be. 3. He 
walked up and down the path. 4. His conduct was not only 
rude but also wrong. 5. We must go ; else they will be disap- 
pointed. 6. It will rain soon ; for the wind is in the east. 
7. Give me neither poverty nor riches. 8. You thought him 
honest, but he is not. 9. As well tell a secret to the winds as 
confide it to a great talker. 10. He is at once genial and dig- 
nified. 11. Though he is rich, yet he is not happy. 12. He is 



176 CONJUNCTIONS. 

both an athlete and a scholar. 13. Come as soon as I call your 
name. 14. Since you mention the subject, 1 will express my 
views. 15. She professes to be charitable, whereas we well know 
that she is not. 16. I will allow him to go, provided he will 
return before the day is over. 17. What with mirth, and what 
with song, the hours fled gaily by. 

410. Subordinating Conjunctions. — Subordinat- 
ing Conjunctions are such as join a subordinate or 
dependent clause to that on which it depends. Subordi- 
nate means ' of loiver order or rank.' 

411. Subordinate Clauses. — If we join two simple 
sentences by a co-ordinating conjunction, we make a 
Compound Sentence having two clauses of equal rank. 
If we join two simple sentences by a subordinating 
conjunction, we make a Complex Sentence having 
two clauses, one of which depends upon the other. 

Ex. Simple Sentences : Frost has come. The trees will soon 

be bare. 

Compound Sentence : Frosfc has come and the trees will 

soon be bare. 

The trees will soon be bare if the 

frost has come. 

The trees will soon be bare after 
Complex Sentences : i ' , „ ■ . J 

the irost has come. 

The trees will soon be bare he- 
cause the frost has come. 

In the last three sentences we have changed the 
assertion 'Frost has come ' into a dependent or Sub- 
ordinate clause, limiting the principal statement c The 
trees will soon be bare.' In the first instance the sub- 
ordinate clause tells on what condition ; in the second, 
at what time ; in the third, for ivhat reason. The Sub- 
ordinate Clause may- have the value of a noun or an 
adjective or an adverb. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 177 

412. Classes of Subordinating 1 Conjunctions. — 

The principal groups of Subordinating Conjunctions 
are the following : — 

(a) Conjunctions of Place and Time. [Commonly 

adverbs and prepositions.] 

Ex. Where, whence, when, as, while or whilst, until, before, ere, 
since, after, as soon as, as long as. 

(b) Conjunctions of Cause and Condition. 

Ex. Because, since, whereas, for that, if, unless, provided, though, 
although, albeit, notwithstanding. 

(c) Conjunctions of End or Purpose. 

Ex. That, so that, in order that, lest. 

(d) Conjunctions of Comparison. 

Ex As, than. 

After the comparative conjunctions, the clause is 
often shortened. 

Ex. He is a better man than I [am] . 

Thou shalt love thy neighbor as [thou lovest] thyself. 

(e) The Substantive Conjunction. — The conjunc- 

tion that, when not used in the sense of 4 in order 
that,' may be called a Substantive Conjunc- 
tion, because it is often used to introduce a 
substantive (or noun) clause. 

Ex. That he teas here is not true. [Noun clause used as the 
Subject of the Verb.] 
I did not say that he was here. [Noun clause used as the 

Object of the Verb.] 
I should try except that 1 fear to fail. [Noun clause used 
as the Object of the Preposition.] 

413. Phrases Used as Conjunctions. — It will be 
noticed that phrases are often used like simple con- 



178 CONJUNCTIONS. 

junctions. Some of the most common examples are 
as if, as though, as ivell as, forasmuch as, provided that, 
seeing that, in order that. 

Exercise 98. 

CONJUNCTIONS, ADVERBS, AND PREPOSITIONS. 

Point out the subordinating conjunctions and explain their use. 
Point out the same words used as adverbs and prepositions and explain 
their use. Which words are used as both adverbs and conjunctions? 

1. Where is my hat? 2. I do not know where your hat is. 
3. When is he coming? 4. Tell me when he is coming. 5. It 
will rain before night. 6. It will rain before the day is over. 
7. Since I heard of the accident I have felt anxious about his 
safety. 8. Since yesterday I have felt anxious. 9. She sews more 
neatly than I, but not as rapidly. 10. Come back as soon as you 
can. 11. As the train started, the crowd cheered. 12. Do not 
speak until you have something to say. 13. Until then I will be 
silent. 14. The watch did not stop until noon. 15. We will 
take a ride after w r e have had dinner. 16. After dinner, we 
ought to write some letters while we are waiting for the carriage. 
17. The family are all going except me. 18. I would go except 
that I must study. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING CONJUNCTIONS. 

414. In parsing conjunctions, we have only to tell 
whether they are co-ordinating or subordinating, and to 
point out the words, phrases, clauses, or sentences which 
they connect. 

Exercises for Parsing. 

1. Since the trouble cannot be cured, it must be endured. 

2. It is twenty long years since the ship sailed, but no news of 
her has ever reached the shore. 

3. The barometer foretells the storm while still the skies are 
clear. 



CONJUNCTIONS. ' 179 

4. Word came that the king had escaped. 

5. It was necessary to halt for two days, that the army might 
collect food. 

6. Though she draws him, yet she follows. 

7. Moreover, he was a just man. 

8. As soon as the queen died, the strife was renewed. 

9. But though he was young, he was prudent. 

10. Don't cross the bridge till you come to it. 

11. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

12. If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 

13. For some must follow and some command, 
Though all are made of clay. 

14. Richard pressed on, and at last reached a hill whence he 
could see Jerusalem, twenty miles away. 

15. The people who now read his books may know almost as 
much of him as those who met him daily ; for it was in his books 
that he made himself known. 

16. The vine still clings to the mouldering w r all ; 
But at every gust the dead leaves fall ; 
And the day is dark and dreary. 

17. But neither climate nor poverty, neither study nor the sorrows 
of a homesick exile, could tame the desperate audacity of his spirit. 

18. Life evermore is fed by death 

In earth and sea and sky, 
And that a rose may breathe its breath, 
Something must die. 

19. But Austria was strong enough, not only to hold her own 
possessions of Lombardy and Venice, but also to keep her creatures 
upon their thrones in the small states, and to crush the republican 
movement throughout the peninsula. 

20. Neither do I condemn thee. 

21. Though England was even then the first of maritime powers, 
she was not, as she has since become, more than a match on the 
sea for all the nations of the world together. 

22. A man he seems of cheerful yesterdays 
And confident to-morrows. 

23. Who knows but that his doom is already sealed? 

24. If we wait and if we work while we wait, we shall not lose 
our reward. 



180 CONJUNCTIONS. 

25. Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he fall. 

26. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably. 

27. Though suffering with cold, he would not make a fire. 

28. Either sooner or later, he will repent of his harsh judgment, 
but it may then be too late to atone for the wrong. 

29. It is seldom that we learn how great a man is until he dies. 

30. Do unto others as you would that they should do to you. 



INTERJ ECTIONS. 181 



CHAPTER X. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

415. An Interjection is an exclamatory word, used 
commonly for the purpose of expressing some feeling. 

Ex. Oh ! ah ! pshaw ! hurrah ! 

416. It has already been said [33] that the inter- 
jections are not properly "parts of speech "; because 
they are ' throivn into ' the sentence loosely, and do not 
combine with other " parts." They are used indepen- 
dently of other words in the sentence. In writing, they 
are generally shown to be interjections by having an 
exclamation point placed after each. In speaking, their 
real meaning is determined by the tone of voice in 
which they are uttered. For example, the interjection 
ah ! may express joy, pain, surprise, or disgust. 

417. Kinds of Interjections. — The most common 
Interjections are the following: — 

(a) Those expressing joy, glad surprise, or wonder. 

Oh ! ah ! ha ! hey ! In ! aha ! hurrah ! huzza ! 

(b) Those expressing pain, sadness, or sorrow. 
Oh! ah! alas! alack! well-a-day ! heigh-ho ! 

(c) Those expressing disapproval, contempt, or dis- 

gust. 

Pooh ! pshaw ! fie ! fauqh ! fudge ! whew ! bah ! ugh ! 



182 INTERJECTIONS. 

(d) Those used to call attention, or to direct, or 

TO EXPLAIN. 

Ho! oh! It olio ! ahoy! hem! lo ! kola! whoa! haw! gee! scat! 
shoo ! 

(e) Those used to silence. 

Hist! hush! tut! mum! whist! 'st ! 

CO Words made to imitate natural sounds. 

Pop ! bang ! bow-wow ! ding-dong ! rub-a-dub ! 

418. Interrogative Use of Interjections. — The in- 
terjections eh? ah? hey? are often used instead of a 
complete interrogative sentence. 

Ex. Eh ? [Have I not found out your secret ?] 
Ah? [Is it possible?] 
Hey ? [What did you ask ?] 

419. Other Words Used as Interjections. — Many 
ordinary parts of speech and a few phrases are some- 
times used independently, and may then be parsed as 
interjections ; or the omitted words may be supplied. 

Ex. How! what ! why ! mercy ! shame ! nonsense ! welcome ! hail ! 
help! see! look! hark! listen! indeed! good! bravo! 
silence! ivell ! adieu! far excel I! good-by! I declare! oh 
dear ! dear me ! 

420. Exclamatory Phrases. — The interjections are 
sometimes combined with other words, to make ex- 
clamatory phrases. 

Ex. Ah me ! Alas the day ! horror ! What ho ! for rest! 

421. O Used with Words of Address. — [not oh] 
is very often used with the vocative case of the noun. 

Ex. To your tents, Israel ! Stand still, thou sun ! 



INTERJECTIONS. 183 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING INTERJECTIONS. 

422. In parsing inteFJections, we need only to men- 
tion that the word is an interjection, and to tell what 
feeling it expresses, or what other purpose it serves. 

In the case of other exclamatory words, we should 
be guided by the meaning. For example, in the ex- 
clamations, " Charge, Chester, charge ! On, Stanley, 
on ! " charge ! should be parsed as a verb in the im- 
perative mode; and on! as an adverb, modifying the 
imperative verb march, understood. Distinguish, in 
this way, between verb interjections and words that are 
exclamatory but not strictly interjectional. 

Exercises for Parsing. 

1. Alas ! what fate is mine ! 

2. " Ho ! ho I " shouted the rollicking blast. 

3. Oh, I have passed a miserable night ! 

4. What ! here ! alive ! not dead ! 

5. Hark ! that sudden blast, of bugles ! 

6. Halt ! — the dust-brown ranks stood fast. 
Fire ! — out blazed the rifle-blast. 

7. Awake, O Bell ! proclaim the hour. 

8. See ! see ! the red light shines. 

9. Hist ! A word with you. 

10. Pooh ! pooh ! danger ! What care I for danger? 

11. What, warder, ho ! Let the portcullis fall. 

12. Hark! she comes! O father! father! 

13. Arm ! arm ! it is — it is — the cannon's opening roar. 

14. Shame! shame! Oh, you have wronged him ! 

15. Lo ! here comes the fairy. 

16. O royal mistress ! yield to our entreaties. 

17. Enough ! enough ! go call my chariot-men. 

18. Ah ! woe for young Virginia, the sweetest maid in Rome. 

19. But hush ! hark ! a deep sound strikes like a rising knell. 

20. O sacred forms, how proud you look ! 



184 INTERJECTIONS. 

21. Ah ! here is the flag 

Torn, dripping with gore ; — bah ! they died for this rag ! 

22. Ah, well ! for us all some sweet hope lies 
Deeply buried from human eyes. 

23. Ho ! brave hearts that went down in the seas ! 

24. Away ! away ! quick ! be quick, I say ! 

25. " Welcome ! " the farmer exclaimed. 

26. " Horse ! horse ! " the Douglas cried, " and chase ! " 

27. Ah me ! but the flood came drowning one day, 
And swept my nest with its wealth away. 

28. O earth, so full of dreary noises ! 

O men, with wailing in your voices ! 

29. Hurrah ! for the Red Island, 
With the white cross on its crown ! 

30. Heigh ho ! daisies and buttercups, 
Fair yellow daffodils stately and tall ! 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 185 



CHAPTER XL 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

423. Double Nature of Infinitives and Participles. 

— The Infinitives and Participles are, as we have 

seen [283, 284], verbal nouns and adjectives : that is, 

words which, while keeping in general their character 

and use in the sentence as nouns and adjectives, take 

at the same time the modifiers which are taken by the 

verb to which they belong — such as objects, predicate 

nouns and adjectives, and adverbs. For example, in the 

sentence 

She learned to speak German fluently, 

the infinitive to speak is used like a noun, as the object 
of the verb learned; and at the same time, like a verb, 
it takes the object German and is modified by the 
adverb fluently. 

On account of this double character, the infinitives 
and participles have some peculiar constructions, to 
which it is necessary to give a little special attention. 

INFINITIVES. 

424. Two Simple Infinitives. — There are, as we 
have already learned [287, 288], two simple infinitives 
to every verb. One of these, which has always the 
same form with the root of the verb, is called the 
infinitive, or sometimes the koot-infinitive. The 
other, which always ends in nig-, thus having the same 



186 



INFINITIVES AND -PARTICIPLES. 



form with the present participle, is called the infini- 
tive in ing, or the participial infinitive. 

Ex. Root-infinitives : give, have, be. 

Participial infinitives : giving, having, being. 

425. Infinitive Phrases. — In addition to these, 
every verb forms certain Infinitive Phrases, by add- 
ing its present and past participles to the infinitives of 
the auxiliary verbs have and be. These phrases have 
already been given in Chapter VI. [348, 349, 352], 
but may be repeated here, with the simple infinitives to 
which they belong. 



Simple. 



(to) give, 



Progressive. 
Present. 
(to) be giving, 



Passive. 



(to) be given ; 



Perfect. 
(to) have given, (to) have been giving, (to) have been given ; 



giving, 



having given, 



Present. 

being giving 
(rarely used), 

Perfect. 
having been giving, 



being given ; 



having been given. 



426. Sign of the Root-Infinitive. — The root-infini- 
tive commonly has before it the preposition TO, which 
is called its Sign. In the oldest English, the to was 
used before the infinitive only when it had a real prepo- 
sitional value, meaning ' unto, in order to, for the pur- 
pose of.' 

Ex. It is good to eat : that is, good unto eating, or for eating. 

Now no such distinction is made. We often use to 
with the root-infinitive when some other preposition 



IKFINITIVES AND PAKTKIPLES. 187 

would be necessary with the infinitive in ing: or with a 
noun of any kind. 

Ex. He failed to appear (of appearing or of appearance). 
We grieve to hear (at hearing or at the tidings). 
He was slow to speak (in speaking or of speech). 
I have reason to suspect (for suspecting or for suspicion). 

427. Omission of To. — To, as the sign of the in- 
finitive, is omitted in many cases, among which are the 
following : — 

(#) After the auxiliaries do, will, shall, may, can, and 
must. Ought requires the to. 
Ex. You ought to try. 

(6) Commonly, but not always, after the verbs dare, 
help, need, 'gin (for begin) ; and also after please 
and go, in certain uses. 
For example, we say 

He dared not leave the place, 
or, He did not dare to leave it ; 

Please read to me, 
but, It pleases her to read to me ; 

Go find your master, 
but, He went to find him. 

(<?) In certain peculiar constructions. 

(1) Thus, after had followed by rather, better, as 

lief, etc. 

Ex. You had better go home. 
I had rather die. 

(2) In comparative phrases. 

Ex. As well yield at once as struggle vainly. 

(3) After hit following a negative. 
Ex. She cannot but grieve for him. 



188 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

(d) Commonly after certain verbs, when preceded by a 
word which is the object of the verb, but which is 
also used as if it w r ere the subject of the infini- 
tive. 
The most common of this class of verbs are see, hear, 

feel, let, make, bid, help, have (in the sense of ' make ' 

or ' cause '), know, find. 

Ex. I saw him do it. 

We must make them help us. 

(1) When the preceding verb is made passive, the 
to is regularly used. 

Ex. He was seen to do it. 

They must be made to help us. 

USES OF THE INFINITIVE. 

428. The two infinitives, with the infinitive phrases 
which belong to them, have in part the same uses with 
each other, and in part different uses. In noticing the 
infinitive constructions, we will take up first those in 
which both agree. 

429. Both infinitives may be used as 

(a) The subject of a verb, or the predicate nomina- 
tive. 

Ex. For him, to hear is to obey. 
Seeing is believing. 

(6) The OBJECT OF A VERB. 

Ex. He likes to travel rapidly. 

He enjoys travelling by rail. 

(c) The OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION. 

The root-infinitive is now used only with the preposi- 
tions about and but {except). 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 189 

Ex. He was about to depart. 

They had no choice but to go. 

I have nothing to do except to read. 

Ill older English, it was also much used after for. 
Ex. What went ye out for to see ? 

The infinitive in iug is very commonly used after 
prepositions. 

Ex. He is tired of wasting his time on trifles. 
I know nothing about her having done it. 
The horse is weary with having been ridden so hard. 

430. Peculiarities of the Participial Infinitive. — 

The foregoing are all the constructions of the infini- 
tive in ing. Two peculiarities of this infinitive may 
be mentioned here : — 

(a) It very often follows a noun or pronoun in the pos- 
sessive case, the infinitive phrase thus formed 
being usually equivalent to a noun-clause. 

Ex. Tom's being here was a lucky thing ; 
that is, It was a lucky thing that Tom teas here. 

They insisted on his following them ; 
that is, They insisted that he should follow them. 

(5) It is sometimes equivalent to an ordinary abstract 
noun [65]. 

Ex. Caesar's passing the Rubicon. [Infinitive with direct object 

Rubicon.'] 

Caesar's passing [passage] of the Rubicon.") 

mi _^ r ~i j? J.! t» i • iC -<-*- ostract 



The passing [passage] of the Rubicon by 



j? 



Caesar. J 

431. Special Uses of the Root-Infinitive. — The 

root-infinitive lias some special uses, peculiar to itself. 
Tt may be used 



190 INFINITIVES AND PAETICIPLES. 

(a) As the real or logical subject of a sentence, the 
pronoun it serving as the grammatical subject 
[163 a]. 
Ex. It is sinful to ivaste time in idleness. 

(J) Adjectively, either directly qualifying the noun, or 

as a predicate adjective. 

Ex. Rooms to rent (for renting). Goods to be sold (for selling). 
His course is not to be justified (justifiable). 

(<?) Adverbially, after verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, to 
point out intent, purpose, object, consequence, and 
the like. 

Ex. He came to visit us. 

They are ready to find fault and hard to please. 
He fell, never to rise again. 

(1) The common use of the infinitive after be, to ex- 
press something expected or required, is of this character. 

Ex. He is to die at sunrise. 

We are to be judged as we judge others. 

(2) Any adjective qualified by too or enough may be 

followed by such an infinitive. 

Ex. They are too many to be sacrificed, but not strong enough 
to conquer. 

(rf) After a verb and its object, as a kind of adjunct 

to the object, signifying an action in which it is 

concerned [427 d]. 

Ex. They saw her depart. 

Nobody imagined him to be listening. 
They declared him to have been killed. 

(1) Sometimes the infinitive is really the indirect 

object of the verb. 

Ex. He forbade us to enter ; 
that is, He forbade us entrance. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 101 

(2) Sometimes the object of the verb seems to be 
the subject of the infinitive, the object and the infini- 
tive being together equivalent to a noun-clause. 

Ex. He commanded the prisoner to surrender ; 
that is, He commanded that the prisoner should surrender. 

In such cases the object can be turned into a passive 
verb-phrase, modified adverbially by the infinitive with to. 
Ex. The prisoner was commanded to surrender. 

(3) If a pronoun follows an infinitive in this con- 
struction, that pronoun is in the objective case, to agree 
with the word to which it relates. 

Ex. We knew it to be him ; 
that is, We knew that it was he. 

PARTICIPLES. 

432. A Participle is a verbal adjective [284, 289]. 
It may qualify a noun, like any other adjective, and at 
the same time it may take the modifiers of a verb. 

Ex. At the desk sat a man hastily writing a letter. 

Here the participle ivriting describes man as acting. 
It does not assert anything, as the verb does ; but it 
takes the direct object letter and is modified by the 
adverb hastily. 

433. Two Simple Participles. — As we have already 
seen [290, 291], the verb has two simple participles. 
One of these, which always ends in ing, is called the 
PRESENT or active participle ; the other, which com- 
monly ends in en, ed, d, or t, is called the PAST or 

PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 

Ex. Present participles : giving, lowing, hearing, meaning. 
Past participles : given, loved, heard, meant. 



192 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

434. Participle Phrases. — Instead of inflected 
forms, certain Participle Phrases are used along 
with the simple participles [348, 349, 352]. 

With the present participle giving, we have 

Perfect, having given ; Progressive perfect, having been giving. 

With the past participle given, Ave have 

Progressive passive, being given ; Perfect passive, having been 
given. 

USES OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

435. The constructions of the participles differ less 
from those of ordinary adjectives than the construc- 
tions of the infinitives from those of ordinary nouns ; 
since adverbial modifiers are taken in general by adjec- 
tives as well as by verbs, and only the present parti- 
ciple, with its phrases, takes an object, or is followed by 
a predicate noun or adjective (except in verb-phrases 
with the auxiliary have). 

436. Both participles (not the participle phrases 
also) may be used as 

(a) Attributive adjectives [245], with only such 

modifiers as are taken by all adjectives. 

Ex. a charming face, sweetl} singing birds, 

a charmed snake, brightly polished arms, 

a very loving heart, well sung songs. 

(1) Sometimes the participle, when used attribu- 
tively, is pronounced with an additional syllable. 

Ex. A learned man, a blessed thought. 

(2) In some verbs the old form of the past participle 

in en is used adjectively, while the other form, ending 

commonly in ed, is used in other constructions [313 a]. 

Ex. A drunken man ; a swollen face ; 
but, He has drunk the draught ; his face has swelled. 



INFINITIVES AND PAKTIC1PLBS. 193 

(3) Some words which are participles in form are so 
constantly used as ordinary adjectives that they hardly 
seem to be participles at all. Sometimes, indeed, there 
is no verb in present use to which they belong. 

Ex. charming, interesting, cunning, trifling: 

beloved, forlorn, civilized, antiquated, jmst. 

Many compound words, also, take the participial end- 
ing ed to make them adjectives [243 d]. 
Ex. barefooted, one-armed, chicken-hearted, 

(6) Predicate Adjectives, in various constructions. 

(1) Simple Predicate [356]. 

Ex. This chair looks inviting. 
He is easily discouraged. 

(2) Adverbial Predicate [250]. 

Ex. Send the ball rolling. 

It stands firmly planted. 

(3) Objective Predicate [251]. 

Ex. He kept us waiting an hour. 
I will have a doctor sent for. 

437. Both the participles and the participle phrases 
are used 

(a) Appositively [246], or with the construction 
of an adjective more loosely attached to the noun 
which it qualifies. 

Ex. She, dying, gave it to me. 

The enemy, beaten, fled, abandoning his camp. 

(1) Either being or having been is often inserted 
before the adjective or the past participle (rarely before 
the present participle), as a kind of sign or auxiliary of 
appositive construction. The adjective or the simple 



194 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

participle is then a predicate adjective after being or 
having been. 

Ex. John, being weary, has retired. 

The enemy, having been beaten, fled. 

(2) The participles and participle phrases, when used 
appositively, have often the value of adverb clauses. 

Ex. The plants, having been neglected, died ; 
that is, The plants died because they were neglected. 

She, dying, gave it to me ; 
that is, She gave it to me when she was dying. 

(6) Absolutely, with either noun or pronoun. 

Ex. The teacher absenting himself, there was no school. 
One having fallen, the rest ran away.. 
It being very cold, we made a fire. 
The signal being given, they started. 

438. The Absolute Construction. — As the Abso- 
lute construction has not been explained in a preced- 
ing chapter [see 128], it needs particular notice here. 

Examples of its use with an ordinary appositive ad- 
jective, or its equivalent are 

He lay down, his heart heavy with sorrow ; 
He flies, wild terror in his look. 

In the first sentence, heart is used with the apposi- 
tive adjective phrase heavy with sorrow ; in the second, 
terror is used with the prepositional phrase in his look. 
In both sentences, the expression so formed is added 
like an adverbial predicate [250]. It is as if with or 
having or a conjunction and the verb be, which might 
have been used, were omitted. 

For example, He lay down, having his heart heavy with sorrow ; 
or, He lay down, while his heart ivas heavy with sorrow. 

He flies, with wild terror in his look ; 
pr," He flies, and wild terror is in his look. 



INFINITIVES AND PABTICIPLES. 195 

Heart and terror are said to be in the nominative 
case absolutely, because each appears to be absolved 
( fc cut loose ') from the sentence to which it belongs, the 
usual sign of relation to the words which it qualities 
being omitted. 

(1) The participles and participle phrases are used 
more often than any other adjective element, in making 
an absolute construction. 

(2) The form of the pronoun before the participle 
shows that the noun or pronoun in the absolute con- 
struction is regularly in the nominative case. 

Ex. We sitting, as I said, the cock crew loud. 

1 having hold of both, they whirl asunder. 
How can we be happy, thou being absent? 

439. Participles Used as Nouns. — Like ordinary 
adjectives, the simple participles may be used as nouns 
[293]. 

Ex. The liv in y and the dead: the tempted and tried; the lost, 
buried, and forgotten. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING INFINITIVES AND 
PARTICIPLES. 

440. In parsing an infinitive or a participle, we have 
to tell — 

1. The form — whether simple or a phrase. 

2. The class. 

3. The verb to which it belongs ; with principal 
parts of the verb. 

4. The construction, 



196 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES, 



EXAMPLES. 

Many of the afflicted, hading lost faith in their physicians, came 
to these celebrated springs, hoping to be healed of their diseases. 

1. Afflicted is the simple past participle of the verb afflict. 
Principal parts, afflict, afflicted, afflicted. It is here used as a 
noun, in the sense of afflicted persons, and is the object of the 
preposition of. 

2. Having lost is a participle phrase, known as the perfect parti- 
ciple of the verb lose. Principal parts, lose, lost, lost. It is used 
as an appositive adjective, qualifying the noun afflicted. 

3. Celebrated is the simple past participle of the verb celebrate. 
Principal parts, celebrate, celebrated, celebrated. It is used as an 
attributive adjective, qualifying the noun springs. 

4. Hoping is the simple present participle of the verb hope. 
Principal parts, hope, hoped, hoped. It is used as the adverbial 
predicate with the verb came ; it also qualifies the noun afflicted. 

5. To be healed is an infinitive phrase, known as the present 
passive infinitive of the verb heal. Principal parts, heal, healed, 
healed. It is used as the direct object of the participle hoping. 

Exercises for Parsing. 

1. Pardon my asking if you like to read. 

2. Please understand that this lesson is to be learned. 

3. His having been absent makes it difficult for him to keep up. 

4. The ambition of most men is to become rich. 

5. Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought. 

6. The mayor ordered the bells to be rung. 

7. The house was deserted and the fields lay uncultivated. 

8. And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray. 

9. Flee from the wrath to come. 

10. Avoid keeping company with the depraved. 

11. During the storm we saw a great oak shattered by a 
thunder-bolt. 

12. Tliey resented having been ordered to keep silence. 

13. T have a work to do and courage to perform it, 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 197 

14. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 

15. There the wicked cease from troubling. 

16. Is it better to say ' the taking of the city ' or ' the capture of 
the city'? 

17. Edward dying without heirs, the crown was conferred upon 
Harold. 

18. He hopes to merit heaven by making earth a hell. 

19. The king's persisting in such designs was the height of 
folly. 

20. Try to improve, and you will be sure to succeed. 

21. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 

22. We used to live in the adjoining house, fronting the park. 

23. England owes her liberties to her having been conquered 
by the Norman. 

24. We were now in danger of starving, our stores being- 
near ly exhausted. 

25. The fleet, shattered and disabled, returned to Spain. 

26. She stood entranced, her eyes dilated and her lips parted, 
while the serpent came gliding towards her. 

27. We believed the story to be false. 

28. Lifting the injured child, he carried her, moaning with 
pain, into the house. 

29. Vessels carrying coal are constantly arriving. 

30. The wind goes whistling through the trees. 

31. Tis hard to part when friends are dear. 

32. What promise of morn is left unbroken ? 

33. The peaches seem to be ripening fast, and some lie rotting 
under the trees. 

34. She is too plain to be charming, it must be admitted. 

35. We suppose it to have been him. 

36. Happiness shared is perfected. 

37. The French, having been dispersed in a gale, had put back 
to Toulon. 

38. I might command you to be slain for this. 

39. No longer relieving the miserable, he sought only to enrich 
himself by their misery. 

40. Books worth reading are to bejiad for the asking. 

41. The soul's dark cottage, battered and decayed, 

Lets in new light through chinks that time has made. 



198 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

42. Towering in the public square, 
Twenty cubits in the air, 
Rose his statue carved in stone. 
Then the king, disguised, unknown, 
Stood before his sculptured name, 
Musing meekly, " What is fame? " 

43. Hark, hark ! the lark at heaven's gate sings, 
And Phoebus 'gins arise, 

His steeds to water. 

44. Having failed to prove his innocence, he was condemned 
to die. 

45. This house [is] to rent, furnished or unfurnished. 

46. She mentions Dr. Taylor's having given an interesting lec- 
ture, illustrated by views taken last summer. 

47. I was about to say that I cannot but think her to blame in 
this matter. 

48. My health permitting, I shall spend the coming year in 
travelling upon the continent. 

49. And round the house sat fifty maid-servants, some grind- 
ing the meal in the mill, some turning the spindle, some weaving 
at th> loom, while their hands twinkled, as they passed the shuttle, 
like quivering aspen leaves. 

50. It is not growing like a tree 

In bulk doth make man better be ; 

Or standing long an oak three hundred year, 

To fall a log at last, dry, bald, and sere. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 199 



CHAPTER XII. 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 

441. Syntax treats of the combination of words for 
use in the expression of our thoughts. Most of the 
important principles and rules of syntax have been 
already stated. They are here repeated in brief, with 
references to preceding paragraphs in which the princi- 
ples are stated and illustrated. 

442. Rule 1. — A sentence is composed of sub- 
ject and predicate : the subject, a noun (or a word 
or words having the value of a noun), names that of 
which something is asserted or declared ; the predicate, 
a verb, expresses that which is asserted or declared of 
the subject. [37] 

443. Rule 2. — The subject of the sentence (also 
called the subject-nominative of the verb) is in the 
nominative case. [106] 

444. Rule 3. — The vekb agrees in person and 

number with its SUBJECT. [367] 

445. Rule 4. — A PREDICATE ADJECTIVE or NOUN 

is one which is brought by a verb into relation with 
its subject, as qualifying or describing the subject. 
[45, 46, 125, 247] 

446. Rule 5. — A predicate (pronoun) agrees 
regularly in case with the subject which it qualifies. 

For example, It is /; it was they. 



200 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

4:47. liule O. — A transitive verb takes a DIRECT 
object, expressing that which is immediately affected 
by the action of the verb ; and sometimes also an 
indirect object, expressing that to or for which the 
action is performed. [129, 259, 260] 

448/ Rule 7. — The object of a verb, whether 
direct or indirect, is in the objective case (the direct 
being an accusative-objective, and the indirect a 
dative-objective). [107, 129] 

449. Rule 8. — An adjective or a noun is called 
objective or factitive predicate when it is brought 
by the verb into relation with the direct object, as 
qualifying or describing that object. [132, 251] 

450. Rule 9. — An adjective qualifying a noun 
directly (not through a verb) is called attributive — 
or, if more loosely connected with the noun, it is called 
APPOSITIVE. [245, 246] 

451. Rule 10. — A noun added to another noun, 
by way of further description of the same object, is 
said to be in apposition with that noun. [124] 

452. Rule 11. — An adverb qualifies a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb. [374] 

453. Rule 12. — An adverb is sometimes used 
with the value of a predicate adjective. 

Ex. The sun is down, the moon is up, and the stars are all out. 

454. Rule 13. — The possessive or genitive case 
of a noun (or pronoun) is used to qualify or limit 
another noun, in the manner of an adjective. [109, 
232] 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 201 

455. Rule 14. — A noun expressing measure or time 
is sometimes used in the objective case with an 
adverbial value, or to qualify a verb, or adjective, or 
adverb. [131] 

456. Rule 15. — A noun or pronoun, along with an 
appositive adjective or its equivalent, is sometimes used 
in the nominative case absolutely, in the manner 
of an adverb, to express some accompanying circum- 
stance or condition of the action. [128, 438] 

457. Rule 16. — A preposition forms with its 
object either an adjective-phrase, qualifying the 
noun, or an adverb-phrase, qualifying a verb or ad- 
jective or adverb. [394] 

458. Rule 17. — A noun or pronoun which is the 
object of a preposition is in the objective case. 
[107, 392] 

459. Rule 18. — A conjunction connects words, 
phrases, clauses, or sentences. [404] 

460. Rule 19. — An interjection has no gram- 
matical relation to other words in the sentence. [33, 
415] 

SUMMARY OF RULES FOR SYNTAX. 

461. The preceding rules show in what ways words 
may be combined to form simple sentences. The ordi- 
nary processes of combination may now be grouped in 
the form of a summary, the pronoun being, for the 
sake of brevity, included along with the noun. 

462. I. The original elements of the sentence are 
the subject-noun and the verb. 



202 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

463. II. The meaning of the verb may be filled out 
by an object-noun; also by a predicate adjective 
or NOUN (qualifying either the subject or the object') ; 
or it may be modified by an adverb. 

464. III. A noun in any construction in the sen- 
tence may be qualified by an adjective; an adjec- 
tive, by an adverb ; an adverb, by another adverb. 

465. IV. A noun may be made to qualify another 
noun, adjectively, by being put in the possessive 
case, or by being joined to the other noun by a prepo- 
sition ; it may be made to qualify a verb or adjec- 
tive or adverb, adverbially, sometimes in the 
objective case simply, but usually by means of a 

PREPOSITION. 



ANALYSIS. 208 



CHAPTER XIII. 

ANALYSIS. 
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

466. Analysis is the process of separating a sen- 
tence into its elements or members, in order to show 
their relation to one another. 

467. Difference between Analysis and Parsing. — 

Analysis differs from Parsing in these two particu- 
lars: — 

1. It omits many details as to parts of speech, classi- 
fication, inflection, and the like. 

2. It views words, phrases, and clauses alike, in their 
mutual relations as parts of the sentence. 

468. The Elements of a Sentence. — The Ele- 
ments of a sentence are those words, phrases, and 
clauses which perform distinct offices in that sentence. 
For example, a phrase which is used as the direct object 
of a verb is an objective element; a clause which 
is used like an adjective is an adjective element. 

469. Essential Elements. — There are two elements 
which are necessary to the sentence. They are the 
Subject, which is either a noun, a pronoun, or some 
word, phrase, or clause used substantively ; and the 
Predicate, which is always a verb. [37] 

470. Subordinate Elements. — The modifiers of the 
subject and predicate are the Subordinate Elements 



204 ANALYSIS. 

of the sentence. The simplest modifier of the subject 
is an adjective ; that of the predicate is an adverb. 

471. Independent Elements. — The Independent 
Elements are those words and phrases which are not 
grammatically related to other parts of the sentence; 
such as the interjections, introductory and par- 
enthetical WORDS AND PHRASES, and NOUNS INDE- 
PENDENT BY ADDRESS OR BY EXCLAMATION. 

Ex. Ah I The fight was long and desperate. [Interjection.] 
Besides, the river was frozen. [Introductory word.] 
To be sure, the mistake was natural enough. [Introduc- 
tory phrase.] 
Let us, therefore, give heed to the warning. [Parentheti- 
cal word.] 
My friends ! we have a pleasant task before us. [ Address.] 
Christmas ! What memories cluster around the day ! 
[Exclamation.] 

472. Base of a Sentence. — The Base of a sentence 
usually consists of the two essential elements, the Sub- 
ject and the Predicate. In some sentences, the 
predicate verb requires some word after it to complete 
the meaning ; and in such cases the Base consists of 
three elements : the Subject, the Predicate Verb, 
and the Complement of the verb. [44-47] 

Ex. Many towering trees fell crashing down in the path of the 

storm. 
These three men were musicians of no mean ability. 

[Predicate Noun as Complement.] 
All the familiar objects looked strange to him. [Predicate 

Adjective as Complement.] 
Our next-door neighbor has lost a valuable horse. [Direct 

Object as Complement.] 

473. The Simple Sentence. — A Simple Sentence 
is one which is made up of one subject and one predicate. 



ANALYSIS. 205 

Ex. The trees are loaded with fruit, fair to the sight and pleas- 
ant to the taste. 

474. Compound Subject. — The simple sentence 
may have a Compound Subject; that is, two or more 
subjects which belong to the same predicate verb. 

Ex. Livingstone and Stanley are the most famous African 
explorers. 

475. Compound Predicate. — The simple sentence 
may have a Compound Predicate; that is, two or 
more predicate verbs belonging to the same subject. 

Ex. Joan of Arc heard and obeyed mysterious voices. 

476. Complete Subject and Predicate. — The BARE 
subject or subject nominative together with its 
modifiers is called the Complete Subject of the sen- 
tence. The BARE PREDICATE 01' PREDICATE VERB 
together with its complement and modifiers is called 
the Complete Predicate. [48] 

477. Modifiers of the Subject. — The subject nomi- 
native of a simple sentence may be modified by 

1. An Adjective or Adjective Phrase. 

Ex. Small leaks sink great ships. 

The enemy, beaten, fled in disorder. 

Very loosely constructed sentences have a bad effect. 

2. A Possessive Noun, Pronoun, or Phrase. 

Ex. Maris ingenuity works wonders. 
His ancestors came from France. 
The Roman general's name was Pompey. 

3. An Appositive Noun or Phrase. 

Ex. J. Robinson, Stationer, makes blank books. 

Disease, the deadly enemy of man, lurks on every side- 



206 ANALYSIS. 

i. An Infinitive or Infinitive Phrase. 

Ex. China to decorate is on sale at the art stores. 
His plan to raise the money is a good one. 

5. A Prepositional Phrase. 

Ex. The captain of the ship was a Norwegian. 

478. Modifiers of the Predicate. — The predicate 
verb may be modified by 

1. An Adverb or Adverb Phrase. 

Ex. Snowflakes fall noiselessly. 

Golden-rod grows almost everywhere. 

2. An Infinitive or Infinitive Phrase. 

Ex. The president rose to speak. 

He resolved to make the attack. 

3. A Prepositional Phrase. 

Ex. The mayflowers blossom in early spring. 

4. An Indirect Object, either a Noun, Pro- 
noun, or Phrase. 

Ex. I have made father a birthday present. 

Thev sent us some fine fruit. 

\> 

He gave every man's work careful attention. 

5. An Adverbial Objective. 

Ex. He walked a mile. 

479. Complement of the Predicate. — The predi- 
cate verb may be completed by 

1. A Predicate Noun or Phrase. 

Ex. His brother is a lawyer. 

The growing boy is the shoemaker's best friend. 

2. A Predicate Adjective or Adjective Phrase. 

Ex. This house looks pleasant. 

Her essay seems remarkably well written, 



ANALYSIS. 207 

3. A Direct Object, either a Noun, Pronoun, 
or Phrase. 

Ex. He saw faults in everybody. 

They dressed her in rich attire. 

The artist sketched the ruined old mill. 

4. An Object and an Objective ok Factitive 
Predicate Adjective or Noun. 

Ex. They named the child John. 
You have made me unhappy. 

480. Compound Modifiers. — The modifiers of the 
subject, the predicate, or the complement may be 
compound. 

Ex. Large and small sums were invested. 
Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 
The wind whistles loud and shrill. 
Be ye therefore wise as serpents and harmless as doves. 
In these mountains are mines of silver and of gold. 
The blossoms are red or white, in small clusters or on single 
stems. 

481. The Simple Interrogative Sentence. — The 

Simple Interrogative Sentence is made up of a 
subject nominative and a predicate verb, and each of 
these may have the same adjuncts and modifiers as in 
the assertive sentence. 

482. Forms of the Interrogative Sentence. — We 

have learned [55] that the usual order of subject and 
predicate is inverted in the Interrogative Sentence, 
the predicate being placed first. We need to notice 
two special forms of the interrogative sentence. The 
first form is used in such questions as may be answered 
by Yes and No ; the second, in questions which cannot 
be answered in this wav. 



208 ANALYSIS. 

483. Questions Answered by Yes and No. — In 

sentences of this kind, the question has reference to 
the predication itself. 

Ex. Is he here f [Is it true that he is here : ? ] 

Did he arrive yesterday? [Is it true that he arrived yes- 
terday : ? ] 

The change from an assertive sentence to an inter- 
rogative sentence of this kind is simply one of arrange- 
ment, the order of subject and predicate being inverted. 

Ex. He will go to town to-morrow. [Assertive.] 

Will he go to town to-morrow? [Interrogative.] 

484. Alternative Interrogatives. — A variation of 
this kind of interrogative sentence is made by inquiring 
which of two things is true in a particular case. Such 
sentences are called Alternative Interrogatives. 

Ex. Did he arrive yesterday, or to-day ? 

Will he go by rail or in his carriage f 

The answer is not precisely Yes or No ; but it com- 
monly either asserts or denies one or the other of the 
alternatives in the question. 

Ex. He arrived yesterday. 

He will not go by rail, but in his carriage. 

485. Questions Not Answered by Yes or No. — 

In sentences of this class, the question may have refer- 
ence to the subject or to the object or to any modifier 
of subject or predicate ; but not to the predicate, as in 
the previous case. The inquiry is made by means of 
some interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb, placed 
at or near the beginning of the sentence. 
Ex. TFAoishere? [Subject.] 

When did he arrive ? [Adverbial Modifier.] 

Which horse will you drive? [Adjective Modifier.] 

What have you found? [Object.] 

At ichat hotel shall we stop ? [Modifier of Object.] 



ANALYSIS. 209 

The natural answer to such a question is a corre- 
sponding assertion, with the desired subject or object, 
etc., put in place of the interrogative word. 

Ex. The doctor is here. 

He arrived this morning, 
I will drive the black horse. 

The interrogative words which may be used to intro- 
duce such sentences are the following : — 

Who (whose, whom), what, which (and, in old style, whether) ; 
where (wherefore, wherewith, whereby, etc.), whither, whence, 
when, why, how. 

486. Interrogative Sentence in Assertive Form. — 

A sentence in the assertive form is often made inter- 
rogative simply by the tone of voice in speaking, or by 
the use of the interrogation mark in writing. 
Ex. He has not gone yet ? 

Sometimes such a sentence is intended to express 
surprise or some feeling of the kind. Sometimes it 
implies that the statement was not understood, and asks 
for a repetition. 

Ex. He will start when ? [When did you say he would start ?] 

48 7. Exclamatory Sentence in Interrogative Forni. 

— The interrogative pronouns and adjectives who and 
what and the interrogative adverbs, especially how, are 
often used to express some strong feeling, such as sur- 
prise, admiration, disapproval, etc. 

Ex. Who would ever have believed it ! 
What a sight was that ! 
How are the mighty fallen ! 

Such sentences may be called Exclamatory Sen- 
tences in the Interrogative Form. 



210 ANALYSIS. 

488. The Simple Imperative Sentence. — The Sim- 
ple Imperative Sentence expresses a command or a 
requirement [54]. The peculiarity of this sentence is 
that the verb is always in the Imperative Mode 
[276], but it may take any of the usual modifiers of 
the predicate verb. 

The Imperative Mode has the same form as the 
root-infinitive, and it also has emphatic, progressive, and 
passive verb-phrases. 

Ex. give, do give, be giving, be given. 

But the Imperative has no different tense-forms or 
tense-phrases, and no change of form to express the 
plural number. 

489. Subject of the Imperative Sentence. — Since 
a command strictly implies that the person command- 
ing speaks directly to the person or persons commanded, 
the real imperative is only of the second person. And 
since, in direct address, a pronoun designating the per- 
sons addressed is rather unnecessary, the imperative is 
generally used without any subject [56]. If a subject 
is expressed, it is commonly placed after the verb. 

Ex. Bring roses. Pour ye wine. 

490. Imperative Verb-Phrases. — Another form of 
expression, made with let, as a kind of imperative 
auxiliary, is much used to intimate a wish or direction 
in the third person, and sometimes in the first person. 

Ex. Let us stand faithfully together. 
Let the messenger set out at once. 

Here the let is plainly a real imperative, and stand, 
etc., an infinitive. The intervening noun or pronoun is 
the objective subject of the infinitive ; that is, it is the 



ANALYSIS. 211 

object of let, and at the same time the subject of the 
infinitive, just as in the phrases make him go, see him 
give. [431 d (2)] 

This construction is so common that it seems to sup- 
ply the place of the missing first and third persons of 
the imperative mode ; and it is properly described as an 
Imperative Verb-Phrase. 

491. Analysis of Simple Sentences. — In analyzing 
a Simple Sentence, we mention that it is a simple sen- 
tence and tell whether it is Assertive, Interroga- 
tive, or Imperative. 

Then we point out in order 

1. The Base of the Sentence. 

2. The Complete Subject. 

3. The Subject Nominative. 

4. The Modifiers of the Subject. 

5. The Complete Predicate. 

6. The Predicate Verb. 

7. The Complement and Modifiers of the Verb. 

8. The Modifiers of the Complement. 

9. The Conjunctions. 

10. The Interjections and other Independent Ele- 
ments. 

11. Analysis of Phrases used as Modifiers. 

EXAMPLE. 

Oral Analysis. This heavy rain will doubtless be very unwel- 
come to the excursionists. 

This is a simple assertive sentence. The base of the sentence 
is rain will be unwelcome. The complete subject is this heavy rain. 
The subject nominative is rain, which is modified by the adjectives 
this and heavy. The complete predicate is will doubtless be very un- 
welcome to the excursionists. The predicate verb is the verb-phrase 



212 ANALYSIS. 

icill be, which is modified by the adverb doubtless and completed by 
the predicate adjective unwelcome. The complement is modified 
by the adverb very and the prepositional phrase to the excursionists, 
of which excursionists is the principal word, modified by the adjec- 
tive the. 

Written Analysis. The elements of the sentence may be written 
in the order indicated in 491. 

[Note. — Devices for mapping out the sentence may be used, 
if the teacher finds them more convenient.] 

1. rain will be unwelcome. ' 

2. This heavy rain. 

3. rain. 

4. the adjectives this and heavy. 

5. will doubtless be very unwelcome to the excursionists. 

6. will be. 

7. the adverb doubtless and the predicate adjective unwelcome. 

8. the adverb very and the prepositional phrase to the excur- 
sionists. 

9. excursionists is modified by the adjective the. 

Exercises for Analysis. 

[Note. — The Exercises in the foregoing chapters will furnish 
abundant material for practice in the analysis of the Simple Sen- 
tence. The exercises which follow are grouped so as to illustrate 
some of the less common constructions.] 

Exercise 99. 

IMPERSONAL, COLLECTIVE, AND COMPOUND SUBJECTS ; 
PHRASES USED AS SUBJECTS. 

[163 b, 368; 64, 370 ; 371, 474; 137, 469.] 

1. The army of the queen mean to besiege us. 

2. Havoc and spoil and ruin are my gain. 

3. How far is it, my lord, to Berkley now ? 

4. The liberality and gratitude of the Normans were remark- 
able. 



ANALYSTS. 213 

5. Nearly one-half of the inhabitants were assembled. 

6. To do so no more is the truest repentance. 

7. The committee is made up of prominent clergymen. 

8. The ambition and avarice of man are the source of much 
unhappiness. 

9. It is hard climbing, for most of us, up the hill of knowledge. 
10. The secretary and treasurer has returned to his office. 

Exercise 100. 

OBJECTS OF THE VERB; OBJECTIVE OR FACTITIVE 

PREDICATE. 

[47, 129, 163 c, 263 ; 132, 249, 251, 264.] 

1. He wrought the castle much annoy. 

2. Alfred rendered his kingdom secure and happy. 

3. Sing us the song again. 

4. The gale had sighed itself to rest. 

5. We can walk it perfectly well in two hours. 

6. Perseverance keeps honor bright. 

7. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 

8. He sighed a sigh and prayed a prayer. 

9. The doctors pronounced the disease incurable. 
10. Early to bed and early to rise 

Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. 



Exercise 101. 

PREDICATE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE; ADVERBIAL 
PREDICATE. 

[44, 124; 46, 247, 249, 250.] 

1. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 

2. All looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. 

3. The clouds hang heavy and low. 

4. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole. 

5. Themistocles was a famous general and statesman. 

6. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

7. The king lay wounded and helpless. 



214 ANALYSIS. 

8. This same son of a tanner was twice elected president of the 
United States. 

9. James was declared a mortal and bloody enemy, a tyrant, a 
murderer, and a usurper. 

10. Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever 
departed. 

Exercise 102. 

ATTRIBUTIVE AND APPOSITIVE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. 

[245,246; 125,252 a.] 

1. History is philosophy teaching by examples. 

2. I found the urchin Cupid sleeping. 

3. Ardent and intrepid on the field of battle, Monmouth was 
everywhere else effeminate and irresolute. 

4. The daughter of a hundred earls, 
You are not one to be desired. 

5. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, 
Comes dancing from the East. 

6. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

7. He comes, the herald of a noisy world. 

8. The long-remembered beggar was his guest. 

9. My soldier cousin was once only a drummer boy. 

10. That beautiful and common vine, the Virginia creeper, is 
now a vivid cherry color. 

Exercise 103. 

ADVERBS. 

[135, 252 b, 380, 389 a, b, c] 

1. Tarry till his return home. 

2. It is the signal of our friends within. 

3. Use a little wine for thine often infirmities. 

4. On my way hither, I saw her come forth. 

5. The sun is up. The travellers are off. 

6. The feast was over in Branksome tower. 

7. His father left him well off. 

8. Here was the chair of state, having directly over it a rich 
canopy. 



ANALYSIS. 215 

9. There were no other people there. 
10. The breezes whisper soft and low. 

Exercise 104. 

POSSESSIVES. 

[109-117, 125.] 

1. My quarrel and the English queen's are one. 

2. This toil of ours should be a work of thine. 

3. Winter's rude tempests are gathering now. 

4. His beard was of several days' growth. 

5. Thou art freedom's now and fame's. 

6. Letters came last night to a dear friend of the good duke 
of York's. 

7. Five times outlawed had he been 

By England's king and Scotland's queen. 

8. I knew myself only as his, his daughter, his the mighty. 

9. Whose house is next to Mason and King's store ? 
10. The poem refers to the Duke of Wellington's death. 

Exercise 105. 

ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE AND ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION. 
[130,131; 128,438.] 

1. He waited an hour, staff in hand. 

2. In this country the sun shineth night and day. 

3. The duke will not draw back a single inch. 

4. Next Anger rushed, his eyes on fire. 

5. Tenderly her blue eyes glistened, long time ago. 

6. He blundered through the reading, careless of sound or 
sense. 

7. Fire in each eye, and papers in each hand, 
They rave, recite, and madden round the land. 

8. Each in his narrow cell forever laid, 
The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 

9. Five times every year he was to be exposed in the pillory. 
10. Winter coming on, the troops were disbanded. 



216 analysis. 

Exercise 106. 

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

[49, 110 ; 394-398.] 

1. I stood in Venice, on the Bridge of Sighs. 

2. Who in the world is that comrade of yours ? 

3. We take no note of time but from its loss. 

4. Her robes of silk and velvet came from over the sea. 

5. He spent hours of enjoyment in tramping through the 
fields. 

6. The moon above the eastern wood shone at its full. 

7. The boyhood of Lincoln was passed in poverty and toil. 

8. Forth from his tent the patriarch Abraham stept. 

9. The merry children danced themselves out of breath. 

10. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas, 
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pre 
Lay in the fruitful valley. 

Exercise 107. 

INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. 

[471] 

1. The Romans, however, were not discouraged by repeated 
defeats. 

2. Ye sons of Freedom ! wake to glory. 

3. O strong hearts and true ! not one went back in the May- 
flower. 

4. What grace ! what beauty ! what matchless eloquence ! 

5. On the other hand, I am a very poor singer. 

6. Venerable men ! you have come down to us from a former 
generation. 

7. We started, accordingly, at the appointed time. 

8. Alas ! I have no home, no country ! 

9. Books ! lighthouses built on the sea of time ! 
10. Nevertheless, I intend to make the effort. 



ANALYSIS. 217 



CHAPTER XIV. 

ANALYSIS. 
COMPLEX AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

492. Simple Sentences Combined. — We have al- 
ready learned that a Simple Sentence may be filled 
up by adding to its subject and predicate a variety of 
modifying words and phrases. We now notice that 
there are also ways in which we may put together 
simple sentences, in order to make longer and more 
intricate sentences. For example, 

They spoke and we listened. 
They spoke while we listened. 
They spoke but we listened. 
We listened while they spoke. 
We listened to what they spoke. 

In each of these sentences we have two subject-pro- 
nouns, they and we; and each has its own predicate- 
verb, spoke and listened. We have, therefore, two 
assertions or statements in each, but the two are so 
closely united by connecting words as to make but one 
sentence. 

493. Three Classes of Sentences. — A sentence 
formed by combining simple sentences is not itself a 
Simple sentence. It is either Complex or Compound, 
or both together. There are, then, three classes of sen- 
tences — Simple, Complex, and Compound. 



218 ANALYSIS. 

494. A Clause. — A sentence that is joined with 
others to make a larger sentence is called a Clause. 
As we have already seen [42, 43], a clause is like a 
phrase in being a combination of words that often 
performs the office of a single part of speech; but it 
differs from a phrase in containing a subject and a 
predicate, and so being really a sentence by itself. 

495. The Connectives. — The Connecting Words 
which bind clauses together into one sentence are the 
following : — 

1. The Conjunctions. [30, 404] 

2. The Relative Pronouns. [176,178] 

3. Other Parts of Speech used as Relative Pronouns. 
[193-196; 377, 378] 

4. The Relative Pronominal Adjectives. [197,236] 
These relative pronouns and adjectives are often 

called " conjunctive," because they are used like con- 
junctions in joining clauses, 

496. Independent Clauses. — The combination of 
clauses into sentences is of two degrees, one being 
much closer than the other. Sometimes one clause is 
put side by side with another and the two are loosely 
tied together by a conjunction, each keeping its own 
value as an independent assertion. For example, 

I called, and lie entered the room. 
The sun was up, but it was hidden by clouds. 
The ring was lost, or some one had stolen it. 
It was dark ; for the moon had not yet risen. 

In these examples, each little sentence or clause 
makes a separate and complete assertion. Such clauses 
are called Independent or Principal Clauses; that 
is, clauses ' of first rank.' 



ANALYSIS. 219 

497. Co-ordinate Clauses. — With relation to each 
other, these Independent Clauses are called Co-ordi- 
nate : that is, ' of equal order or rank.' 

498. Conjunctions Used with Co-ordinate Clauses. 

— The conjunctions which join clauses in this way, 
leaving them independent assertions, are called the Co- 
ordinating Conjunctions. [408] 

499. Compound Sentences. — A sentence which is 
made up of two or more independent clauses is called 
a Compound Sentence. The examples given in 496 
are all compound sentences, each being made up of two 
independent clauses joined by a co-ordinating conjunc- 
tion. 

Sometimes the independent clauses are not joined by 
conjunctions, but are so closely connected in sense that 
they are regarded as parts of a Compound Sentence. 

Ex. I cannot go; my time is not up. 

Carthage crosses the Alps ; Rome passes the sea. 
An hour passed on — the Turk awoke ; 
That bright dream was his last. 

On the other hand, we often put a simple connective, 
usually and or but, at the beginning of a separate sen- 
tence, or even of a paragraph, to point out in a general 
way its relation to what precedes. 

Ex. But why do I speak of death ? 

It appears, then, that there is no absolute distinction 
between a sentence and a clause ; but, for convenience, 
we use the term " clause " with reference to a part of a 
larger sentence. 

500. Dependent Clauses. — We have seen that in 
a compound sentence the clauses are so loosely con- 



220 ANALYSIS. 

nected that we can take them apart and make of each 
an independent assertion. But there is another class 
of sentences, in which the degree of connection is much 
closer, so that one clause is made a part or member of 
another, or becomes dependent upon it. 
For example, in the sentence 

When I awoke, I got up 

the only real assertion is I got up. The clause when I 
awoke tells the time of rising, and means the same as 
the adverb-phrase on waking. It is used as if it were 
an adverb of time modifying the verb got up. 
Again, in the sentence 

The bird which I saw could not fly 

the only assertion is The bird could not fly. The clause 
which I saiv merely defines or describes the bird, just as 
an adjective would do. It has, therefore, the value of 
an adjective, and can easily be turned into an adjec- 
tive form : — 

The bird seen by me could not fly. 

Once more, in the sentence 

What lay there was a bird 

the assertion is simply that a certain thing was a bird, 
and the thing is defined or named as being what lay 
there. The predicate-verb was has no other subject 
than the clause what lay there. The clause is, there- 
fore, used with the value of a noun, being equivalent 
to the words the thing lying there — a noun with an 
adjective describing it. 

When a clause is thus made to play the part of a 
word, a single part of speech, in another clause, it is 



ANALYSIS. 221 

said to be dependent on that other, and it is called a 
Dependent or Subordinate Clause. Subordinate 
means ; of inferior order or rank.' 

501. Classes of Dependent Clauses. — According 
to the part which it plays in the sentence, a Dependent 
Clause is called an Adverb Clause, an Adjective 

Clause, or a Noun (Substantive) Clause. 

502. Complex Sentences. — A sentence which con- 
tains as one of its members a dependent clause is called 
a Complex Sentence. By this is meant that its parts 
are more ' woven together,' made into one, than those 
of the compound sentence. 

503. Varieties of the Complex Sentence. — A Com- 
plex Sentence may have one principal clause and one 
dependent clause. 

Ex. I found a bird which could not fly. 

But it may also contain more than one dependent 
clause. These may be of the same kind. 

Ex. I found a bird which had fallen from its nest and which 
was too weak to fly. 

Or they may be of different kinds, and unconnected 
with one another. 

Ex. What lay there was, if I saw aright, a bird which could 
not fly. 

Again, a complex sentence may contain one clause 
dependent upon another which is itself dependent upon 
a third, and so on. 

Ex. I went into the garden where the grass was wet with the 
dew that lay upon it. 
This is the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat 
that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 



222 ANALYSIS. 

504. Co-ordinate Dependent Clauses. — Depend- 
ent Clauses, as well as Independent ones [497], are 
called Co-ordinate when they perform the same office 
in the sentence, or are joined by co-ordinating conjunc- 
tions. 

Ex. If we walk, if we speak, if we even lift a finger, we help to 
wear out our bodies. 
The men who succeed and who are honored in their success 
are honest, industrious men. 

505. Connectives in Complex Sentences. — A de- 
pendent clause may be joined to the clause on which it 
depends, or of which it forms a part, by any one of the 
following Connectives : — 

(a) A Subordinating Conjunction. 
Ex. The rain poured while the sun shone. 

(b) A Relative Pronoun. 

Ex. The church which was burned has been rebuilt. 

(c) A Relative Adjective. 

Ex. He gave the children what money he had. 

(cT) A Relative or Conjunctive Adverb. 

Ex. Show us how the man icalked. 

506. Compound-Complex Sentences. — We have 
learned that a compound sentence is commonly formed 
by joining two or more simple sentences. These are 
called the Members of the compound sentence. But 
a compound sentence may be made by joining complex 
sentences, or simple and complex ones. If one or more 
of the Members is complex, the sentence is called Com- 
pound-Complex. 

Ex. Dare to be true ; nothing can need a lie ; 

A fault which needs it most grows two thereby. 



analysis. 223 

Exercise 108. 

(a) Point out the clauses in each sentence, . 

(b) Tell whether each clause is independent or dependent, and why. 

(c) Tell whether the sentence is simple, complex, compound, or com- 

pound-complex, and why. 

1. What excited our curiosity and what led us to examine the 
cave was the dog's strange behavior. 2. Where the Indians came 
from is not known. 3. The men who lived so nobly, who fought 
so bravely, who died so gloriously, were all our brothers. 

4. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a soldier lay, 
Torn with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his life 

away. 

5. A single sentinel was pacing to and fro beneath the arched 
gateway which leads to the interior, and his measured footsteps 
were the only sound that broke the breathless silence of the night. 

6. Near the banks of " bonny Doon " stands the little clay-built 
cottage in which Robert Burns was born. 7. Diligence is the 
mother of good luck ; and God gives all things to industry. 

8. Then they set sail, and at eventide drew their ships to the land 
and slept on the beach. 

9. A king sat on the rocky brow 
Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis. 

10. Every day is a little life ; and our whole life is but a day 
repeated 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

507. Of the dependent clauses, the Adjective 
Clause is simplest in its construction. It is always 
equivalent to an attributive or appositive adjective, and 
it usually follows the noun or pronoun which it qualifies. 

Ex. The purse which he lost was made of leather. 

508. Words Introducing" Adjective Clauses. — An 

Adjective Clause may be introduced by 

(a) A Relative Pronoun. 

Ex. He whom thou lovest is sick. 

The horse that bore him was fleet. 



224 ANALYSIS. 

(6) A Conjunction or Relative Adverb. 

Each of these is equivalent to a relative pronoun with 
a preposition governing it. 

Ex. The city where [= in which] he lived. 

The land whence [= from which] he came. 

The reason why [= for which] he is here. 

The time when [= at which] Rome was founded. 

ADVERB CLAUSES. 

509. An Adverb Clause usually qualifies a verb ; 
much less often, an adjective; and rarely an adverb. 

Ex. We laughed when we saw our mistake, 
He is stronger than his enemies are. 
Our friends returned sooner than we had expected them. 

510. Words Introducing" Adverb Clauses. — Ad- 
verb Clauses are introduced by a great variety of 
subordinating conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs, as 
will be seen from the examples in 511. 

511. Classes of Adverb Clauses. — Adverb Clauses 
may be classified somewhat like simple adverbs. Thus 
we may have adverb clauses 

(a) Of Place. 

Ex. He lay where he fell. 

Whither I go ye cannot come. 

(J) Of Time. 

Ex. When I awoke, it was six o'clock. 
Make hay while the sun shines. 

(<?) Of Manner and Degree. 

Ex. She does as she likes. 

They are better than we had expected. 
I am as sure as any man can be. 



ANALYSIS. 225 

(d) Of Cause. 

Ex. He was silent because he was angry, 
I am sorry that I did so. 
Since you say it, we believe it. 

(e) Of Result or Effect. 

Ex. He was so weak that he fell. 

They shouted till the woods rang. 

(f) Of Condition oh Concession. 

Ex. If you are honest, you will be respected. 
Unless I am mistaken, he is the man. 
He could not do it, though he tried hard. 

(#) Of End or Purpose. 

Ex. He died that we might live. 

Ye shall not touch it, lest ye die. 

512. Correlative Adverbs and Conjunctions. — 

The conjunction introducing a clause often has a Cor- 
relative Adverb, of similar meaning, in the clause 
on which this one is dependent, the two words having 
a relation somewhat like that of the relative and its 
antecedent. [177] 

Ex. Where the bee sucks, there suck I. 

When the heart beats no more, then the life ends. 
If I speak false, then may my father perish. 
Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
As I entered, so will I retire. 

So, too, adverbs of manner and degree are often fol- 
lowed by Correlative Conjunctions. 

Ex. It was so dark that I could not see. 

He lived as well as his means allowed. 

These constructions give us conjunction phrases, such 
as the following : so as, so that, so far as, as good as, 
according as, no sooner than. 



226 ANALYSIS. 

SUBSTANTIVE OR NOUN CLAUSES. 

513. Uses of the Substantive Clause. — The Sub- 
stantive Clause has a great variety of constructions, 
like those of the noun to which it is equivalent. The 
most common are the following : — 

(a) Subject of the Verb. 

Ex. What he says is never to the point. 

Whether you go or stay is of little account. 
That he is wealthy is evident. 

As we have already seen [163 a], the pronoun it is 
often used in place of the substantive clause, as the 
grammatical subject of a sentence. 

Ex. It is of little account ichether you go or stay. 
It is evident that he is wealthy. 

(h) Object of the Verb. 

Ex. We heard that she was ill. 
I know not what I shall do. 
He showed me where the treasures were kept. 

(c) Predicate Nominative. 

Ex. He is precisely what he seems. 

My home is ivherever I am happy. 

(d) Appositive. 

Ex. The fact that he was mistaken is clear to us all. 
His letter was to the effect that he will come. 

(e) Object of a Preposition. 

Ex. 'He traded with what capital he had. 
You err in that you think so. 
She is doing well, except that she cannot sleep. 



ANALYSIS. 227 

(/) The substantive clause introduced by that (or, 
rarely, lest) is added directly to a verb or adjec- 
tive or noun in many cases where the noun 
would require a preposition before it as a con- 
nective. 

Ex. They insisted that ice should stay [= on our staying'] . 
He is afraid lest he shall fall [_— of falling] . 

514. Words Introducing Substantive Clauses. — 

The words which most often introduce a Substantive 
Clause are the following : — 

(a) The Compound Relative Pronouns and Pronominal 
Adjectives [188, 236], with their corresponding 
Adverbs : namely, 

Who (whose, whom), what, which ; 
When, where, whence, whither, why, how ; 
Whoever, whosoever, whenever, etc. 

When used with a simple relative meaning, all these 
words may introduce adjective or adverb clauses. 'When 
used as compound relatives, they are equivalent to a 
substantive word along with an adjective or adverbial 
adjunct. 

Ex. I know who did this [= the person who did this]. 
I heard what he said [=the thing which he said]. 
We know why he said it [= the reason why he said it]. 

(J) The Conjunction whether, expressing a doubt or 
alternative. If is sometimes, but less properly, 
used instead of whether. 

Ex. She inquired whether you were well. 

Whether he is old or young does not concern us. 
I know not if it be true. 



228 ANALYSIS. 

(<?) The Conjunction that. This is the connective com- 
monly used to introduce noun clauses in many 
different constructions. Lest, which is nearly 
equivalent to that not, is much less often used. 
Ex. Take heed lest ye fall [= that ye do not fall]. 

515. Omission of " That." — In clauses of all kinds, 
the connective that, whether relative pronoun or con- 
junction, is very often omitted. 

Ex. It is strange they do not come. 
We saw he was there. 
I am sure it is so. 

This is the reason I do not like him. 
Here is the book you were looking for. 
He came the moment he heard the news. 

516. Additional Clauses. — Sometimes a relative 
word is used to introduce an Additional Clause, 
and attach it to a sentence. It is then nearly equiva- 
lent to the conjunction and together with a personal 
or demonstrative pronoun or an adverb. 

Ex. I gave him some bread, which he ate [= and that he ate] . 
She passed the cup to the stranger, who drank heartily 

[= and he drank heartily] . 
She carried it to the closet, where she stored it away 
[=and there she stored it away]. 

Such sentences are complex in form, but are really 
equivalent to compound sentences. 

Which, when used to introduce an additional clause, 
often has for its antecedent a clause, instead of a single 
word. 

Ex. He did not come, which I greatly regret. 

51 fr. Abbreviated Clauses. — Dependent clauses are 
often abbreviated into phrases and single words. The 



ANALYSIS. 229 

omitted portion is called an Ellipsis, and must be sup- 
plied in parsing. 

Ex. It is important if true [=if it is true]. 

She is as handsome as ever [= as she ever was]. 

Love thy neighbor as thyself [= as thou lovest thyself]. 

518. Relative Words Representing Dependent 
Clauses. — In order to avoid unnecessary repetition, 
we often use a relative word alone in place of the 
dependent clause which it would have introduced. 

Ex. He has been gone all day, no one knows where [where he 

has been]. 
One of you must give way, I do not care which [which 

gives way]. 
He is angry, but I do not know why [why he is angry], 

519. Exclamatory Sentences in Dependent Form. 

— Dependent clauses are often used in an Exclama- 
tory way, the principal clause being omitted altogether 
and sometimes replaced by an interjection. 

Ex. Had we but known of it in time ! [/ wish we had but 

known of it in time.] 
Alas that he should have proved so false! [It is a pity 

that he should, etc.] 
What a world this is ! [Consider what a world this is.] 

Exercise 109. 

DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 

Point out the Adjective Clauses, the Adverb Clauses, and the Noun 
Clauses. 

1. The fact that he is an American needs no proof. 2. Who 
steals my purse steals trash. 3. He that lacks time to mourn 
lacks time to mend. 4. Kindness is the golden chain by which 
society is bound together. 5. Love not sleep, lest thou come to 
poverty. 6. There is no need that she be present. 7. You cannot 



230 ANALYSIS. 

tell where the cup was mended. 8. Freely we serve, because we 
freely love. 9. She could not read until she was eight years old. 

10. It is doubtful whether the boys understood what I meant. 

11. He had a fever when he was in Spain. 12. This is the season 
when the days are shortest. 13. They met him in Florence, where 
he spent the winter. 14. The house where we live is sixty years 
old. 15. We cherish the hope that he will return. 



SUMMARY OF FACTS RELATING TO COMPLEX AND COM- 
POUND SENTENCES. 

520. In Chapter XII. are stated the most important 
facts concerning the uses of the parts of speech and 
the construction of Simple Sentences. We may now 
sum up, in the form of definitions and rules, what we 
have learned about other kinds of sentences : as fol- 
lows : — 

521. A sentence which forms a part of a more com- 
prehensive sentence is called a Clause. 

522. A clause is either Independent or Depend- 
ent : Independent, if it forms an assertion by itself ; 
Dependent, if it enters into some other clause with 
the value of a part of speech: namely, of a noun, an 
adjective, or an adverb. 

523. Clauses are Co-ordinate if they are of the 
same rank with one another : either as being alike inde- 
pendent, or as being alike dependent with the same 
construction. 

524. A sentence is Compound, if made up of inde- 
pendent clauses ; Complex, if it contains a dependent 
clause, or more than one ; Compound-Complex, if one 
or more of its independent clauses is complex. 



ANALYSIS. 231 

525. Co-ordinate Clauses, whether independent or 
dependent, are usually joined by Co-ordinating Con- 
junctions. 

526. A Dependent Clause is joined to the clause 
(independent or dependent) on which it depends, or 
of which it forms a part, by a Subordinating Con- 
junction or Conjunctive Adverb, or by a Relative 
Pronoun or Adjective. 

527. A Dependent Clause is named from its office 
in the sentence of which it forms a part : it is a Sub- 
stantive Clause, or an Adjective Clause, or an 
Adverb Clause. 

528. A Substantive Clause is one which performs 
the office of a Noun : being the subject or object of a 
verb, the object of a preposition, and so on. 

529. An Adjective Clause is one which performs 
the office of an Adjective, by describing or qualifying 
a noun. 

530. An Adverb Clause is one that performs the 
office of an Adverb, by qualifying a verb, or adjective, 
or adverb. 

531. Combination and Separation of Sentences. — 

It is good practice in English construction to take apart 
Complex and Compound sentences into the separate 
simple statements of which they are made up ; and also 
to put together simple statements into Complex and 
Compound forms. For example, take the following 

Separate statement : — 

A frog had seen an ox. She wanted to make herself as big as 
he. She attempted it. She burst asunder. 



232 analysis. 

Combined statement: — 

1. A frog had seen an ox, and wanted to make herself as big 
as he ; but when she attempted it she burst asunder. 

2. A frog that had seen an ox, and wanted to make herself as 
big as he, burst asunder when she attempted it. 

3. When this frog burst asunder, she was wishing and attempt- 
ing to make herself as big as an ox which she had seen. 

4. Because a frog, when she had seen an ox, wanted to make 
herself as big as he, and attempted it, she burst asunder. 

5. It is said that a frog, having seen an ox, wanted to make 
herself as big as he, and burst asunder in the attempt. 

Exercise 110. 

SEPARATE STATEMENTS TO BE COMBINED. 

A crow stole a piece of cheese. It had lain in a cottage-window. 
She had discovered it there. She flew into a tree. The cheese 
was in her beak. A fox observed this. He came near. He sat 
under the tree. He began to praise the crow. He said this. 
" Your feathers are of a lovely color. I never saw any so beauti- 
ful. This is true. You have a fine shape. Your air is quite 
elegant. I never heard your voice. It must be sweet. I am sure 
of it. A melodious voice always goes along with such beauty. 
In that case no other bird can compare with you." The crow was 
delighted. She wriggled about on the branch. She put on grace- 
ful airs. She thought : " My voice is as fine as my feathers. I 
will show this to the fox." She opened her mouth. She was 
going to sing. The cheese dropped. The fox was watching for 
this. He caught the cheese. It had not yet touched the ground. 
He ran off with it to his hole. His family were there. They all 
ate it together. He told them the story. They laughed at the 
crow's silly vanity. 

Exercise 111. 

COMBINED STATEMENTS TO BE SEPARATED. 

After a shepherd-boy, who kept his sheep upon a common 
where there was a dangerous wood hard by, and who was a mis- 
chief-loving fellow, had three or four times cried out " Wolf ! 



ANALYSIS. 233 

wolf ! " when there was no wolf coming, and so had cheated the 
husbandmen of the neighborhood, who would quit their work and 
run to help him, they all grew so distrustful of him that once, 
when a wolf actually came and attacked him, they would not 
listen to his cries, but stayed quietly in their fields and gardens, 
till the flock was scattered and destroyed and the boy was torn to 
pieces, while he lamented his own folly, and exclaimed with his 
last breath that he who tells lies is only justly treated if he is not 
believed when he speaks the truth. 

532. Analysis of Compound Sentences. — In ana- 
lyzing a Compound Sentence, we mention that it is 
compound, and point out the clauses or members of 
which it is composed. We then analyze each separate 
clause. In writing the analysis, the clauses may be so 
arranged as to show their relation to one another. [See 
Exercises 49, 50, 51.] 

EXAMPLE. 

The king | must win, 
or 
he | must forfeit his crown forever. 

This is a compound assertive sentence. It is com- 
posed of the two co-ordinate clauses the king must win 
and he must forfeit his croivn forever. These are joined 
by the co-ordinate conjunction or. 

The king is the complete subject of the first clause. 
The subject nominative is king, which is modified by 
the adjective the. The predicate verb is the verb-phrase 
must win, which is unmodified. He is the unmodified 
subject of the second clause. The complete predicate 
is must forfeit his crown forever. The predicate verb is 
the verb-phrase must forfeit, which is modified by the 
Ttdverb forever and completed by the direct object crown. 
Croivn is modified by the possessive adjective his. 



234 ANALYSIS. 



Exercise 112. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES: INDEPENDENT CO-ORDINATE 

CLAUSES. 

[496-499.] 

1. The people are like the sea, and orators are like the wind. 

2. Nothing is denied to well-directed labor; nothing is ever 
to be attained without it. 

3. Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses of an 
enemy are deceitful. 

4. These are Clan-Alpine's warriors true ; 
And, Saxon, I am Roderick Dhu ! 

5. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have 
greatness thrust upon them. 

6. The moon has sunk behind the Mount of Olives, and the 
stars in the darker sky shine doubly bright over the sacred city. 

7. The Old Manse ! — we had almost forgotten it; but we will 
return thither through the trees. 

8. A little weeping would ease my heart ; 

But in their briny bed 
My tears must stop, for every drop 
Hinders needle and thread. 

9. Death but entombs the body ; life, the soul. 

10. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 
And all the air a solemn stillness holds. 

11. John Ericsson, the inventor of the screw propeller, had 
lately completed his invention of the turret ship; and a few 
hours after the Merrimac's victory the first vessel of this class, 
the famous Monitor, appeared in Hampton Roads. 

12. Example is better than precept ; inspiration is better than 
instruction. 

13. The hours glide by ; the silver moon is gone ; the stars are 
rising, slowly ascending the heights of heaven, and solemnly sweep- 
ing downward in the stillness of the night. 

14. Genius rushes like a whirlwind ; talent marches like a 
cavalcade of heavy men and heavy horses ; cleverness skims like a 
swallow in the summer evening, with a sharp, shrill note and 
a sudden turning. 



ANALYSIS. 235 

15. The golden-rod is yellow, 
The corn is turning brown, 
The trees in apple orchards 
With fruit are bending down. 

533. Analysis of Complex Sentences. — In analyz- 
ing a Complex Sentence we first state that it is 
complex, and point out the principal clause and the 
dependent clause or clauses. Then we analyze first the 
principal clause and afterwards the dependent clauses, in 
their natural order. In writing the analysis, the depen- 
dent clauses should be so arranged as to show what 
they modify. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. We | hear the \ C i lock „ , , 

(that | tolls the hour. 

We | hear the clock 

2. as 

it I tolls the hour. 



That 
it I has tolled 



is certain. 



4. I | do not know 

whether 

it | has tolled. 

The first sentence may be analyzed as follows : — 
This is a complex assertive sentence, made up of the 
principal clause we hear the clock and the dependent 
clause that tolls the hour. These clauses are joined by 
the relative that. We is the unmodified subject of the 
principal clause. Hear the clock is the complete predi- 
cate. Hear is the predicate verb, completed by the 
direct object clock, which is modified by the adjective 
the and the adjective clause that tolls the hour. The 



236 ANALYSIS. 

relative pronoun that is the unmodified subject of the 
dependent clause. Tolls the hour is the complete predi- 
cate. The predicate verb is tolls, which is completed 
by the direct object hour. Hour is modified by the 
adjective the. 

Exercise 113. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES: ONE DEPENDENT CLAUSE. 

[500, 502, 503.] 

1. If wrinkles must be written upon our brows, let them not 
be written upon the heart. 

2. Many a year is in its grave 
Since I crossed this restless wave. 

3. He who would search for pearls must dive below. 

4. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

5. Who wrote the Book of Job is not certainly known. 

6. He jests at scars who never felt a wound. 

7. Had not Caesar seen that Rome was ready to stoop, he 
would not have dared to make himself the master of that once 
brave people. 

8. There is a tide in the affairs of men, 
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune. 

9. Mountain and lake and valley a sacred legend know, 

Of how the town was saved one night, three hundred years 
ago. 
10. If a man empties his purse into his head, no man can take 
it away from him. 

Exercise 114. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES: MORE THAN ONE DEPENDENT 

CLAUSE. 

[503.] 

1. As we travel inland, places are pointed out to us where 
populous cities once stood. 

2. The book which makes a man think the most is the book 
which strikes the deepest root in his memory and understanding. 



ANALYSIS. 237 

3. When they came to countries where the inhabitants were 
cowardly, they took possession of the land. 

4. In fact, there 's nothing that keeps its youth, 
So far as I know, but a tree and truth. 

5. It is doubtful whether he will ever find the way to heaven 
who desires to go thither alone. 

6. For 't is the mind that makes the body rich ; 
And, as the sun breaks through the darkest clouds, 
So honor peereth in the meanest habit. 

7. We cannot perceive that the study of grammar makes the 
smallest difference in the speech of people who have always lived 
in good society. 

8. A man should never be ashamed to own that he has been 
in the wrong, which is but saying in other words that he is wiser 
to-day than he was yesterday. 

9. As the boats moved silently up the river, Farragut lashed 
himself to the mast of his ship, so that he might be able to see 
above the smoke when the battle began. 

10. A tradition relates that when the barbarians, under cover 
of the darkness of night, had climbed the steep rock, and had 
almost effected an entrance to the citadel, the defenders were 
awakened by the cackling of some geese, which the piety of the 
famishing soldiers had spared, because these birds were sacred to 
Juno. 

Exercise 115. 

CO-ORDINATE DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 

1. Henry VII. was buried in the beautiful chapel of West- 
minster Abbey which he had himself founded and which still 
bears his name. 

2. When faith is lost, when honor dies, the man is dead. 

3. Recollect that trifles make perfection, and that perfection 
is no trifle. 

4. We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. 

5. They who are most weary of life and who are most unwill- 
ing to die are those who have lived to no purpose. 

6. If there were air to convey a sound from the sun to the 



238 ANALYSIS. 

earth, and a noise could be made loud enough to pass that dis- 
tance, it would require over fourteen years for it to come to us. 

7. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought, 
Whene'er is spoken a noble thought, 
Our hearts, in glad surprise, 

To higher levels rise. 

8. Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but 
which let wasps and hornets break through. 

9. Then he thought how the long streets were dotted with 
lamps, and how the peaceful stars were shining overhead. 

10. The breeze comes whispering in our ear 
That dandelions are blossoming near, 
That maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing, 
That the river is bluer than the sky, 
That the robin is plastering his house hard by. 

Exercise 116. 

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
[506.] 

1. The more we do, the more we can do; the more busy we 
are, the more leisure we have. 

2. Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower, 

And they trimmed the lamps as the sun went down. 

3. Blessed is he who has found his work ; let him ask no other 
blessedness. 

4. I slept and dreamt that life was Beauty, 
I woke and found that life was Duty. 

5. All the hedges are white with dust, and the great dog under 

the creaking wain 
Hangs his head in the lazy heat, while onward the horses 
toil and strain. 

6. If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be 
lost; that is where they should be; now put foundations under 
them. 

7. God gives thee youth but once ; 

Keep, then, the childlike heart that will 
His kingdom be. * 



ANALYSIS. 239 

8. He who has a thousand friends hath not a friend to spare, 
And he who has one enemy shall meet him everywhere. 

9. The tongue is the key-board of the soul; but it makes a 
world of difference who sits to play upon it. 

10. Speak clearly, if you speak at all ; 

Carve every word before you let it fall. 

Exercise 117. 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

[507, 508.] 

1. Happy is the nation that has no history. 

2. Richard pressed on, and at length reached a hill whence he 
could see Jerusalem, twenty miles away. 

3. Count that day lost whose low-descending sun 
Views from thy hand no worthy action done. 

4. The veil that hides the future is woven of 'jyerhaps.' 

5. Never to the bow that bends 
Comes the arrow that it sends ; 
Never comes the chance that passed ; 
That one moment was its last. 

6. Gone are the birds that were our summer guests. 

7. The long-remembered beggar was his guest, 
Whose beard, descending, swept his aged breast. 

8. Ye winds, that move over the mighty spaces of the West, 
chant his requiem ! 

9. There was never yet philosopher 

That could endure the toothache patiently. 
10. It is the hour when from the boughs 
The nightingale's high note is heard. 

Exercise 118. 

ADVERB CLAUSES. 
[509-512.] 

1. The childhood shows the man, as morning shows the day. 

2. It was necessary to halt for two days, that the army might 
collect food. 



240 ANALYSIS. 

3. The higher we climb, the colder it grows. 

4. Confidence cannot dwell where Selfishness is porter at the 
gate. 

5. Whither thou goest I will go; and where thou lodgest I 
will lodge. 

6. Since my country calls me, I obey. 

7. The earlier you rise, the better your nerves will bear 
study. 

8. When you face a difficulty, never let it stare you out of 
countenance. 

9. Though the mills of God grind slowly, 
Yet they grind exceeding small. 

10. By the flow of the inland river, 

Whence the fleets of iron have fled, 
Where the blades of the grave-grass quiver, 
Asleep are the ranks of the dead. 



Exercise 119. 

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 
[513, 514.] 

1. Think that To-day shall never dawn again ! 

2. Just how the mine was discovered was the subject of dis- 
pute. 

3. We considered whether the letter demanded a reply. 

4. It is by careful saving that men grow rich. 

5. Whoever saw it first cried out " I see the star ! " 

6. Who builds a church to God, and not to fame, 
Will never mark the marble with his name. 

7. They were but too ready to believe that whoever had in- 
curred his displeasure had deserved it. 

8. They will admit that he was a great poet; but they will 
deny that he was a great man. 

9. The imprudent man reflects on what he has said ; the wise 
man, on what he was going to say. 

10. The Greeks said grandly, in their tragic phrase, 
' Let no one be called happy till his death/ 



analysis. 241 

Exercise 120. 

OMISSION OF THAT: DEPENDENT CLAUSES OF ADDITION. 

[515, 516.] 

1. Measure your mind's height by the shadow it casts. 

2. We must be gentle, now we are gentlemen. 

3. The face you wear, the thoughts you bring, 
A heart may heal or break. 

4. I thrice presented him a kingly crown, which he did thrice 
refuse. 

5. A glass was offered to Mannering, who drank it to the 
health of the reigning prince. 

6. Take the good the gods provide thee. 

7. The moment my business here is arranged, I must set out. 

8. The schoolmaster had hardly uttered these words, when 
the stranger entered. 

9. Lives of great men all remind us 
We can make our lives sublime. 

10. The king sent forth a herald who proclaimed that all the 
spindles in the realm must be destroyed; which royal command 
was instantly obeyed. 

Exercise 121. 

ABBREVIATED AND EXCLAMATORY DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 

[517-519.] 

1. Beauty's tears are lovelier than her smile. 

2. How blessings brighten as they take their flight ! 

3. What a piece of work is man ! 

4. Let him, when well again, return to duty. 

5. How sleep the brave, that sink to rest 
By all their country's wishes blest ! 

6. Ah ! what would the world be to us, 
If the children were no more ! 

7. A good man's life often teaches more than his words. 

8. Oh, did we but know when we are happy ! 



242 ANALYSIS. 

9. It [mercy] becomes the throned monarch better than his 
crown. 

10. To thine own self be true, 

And it must follow, as the night the day, 
Thou canst not then be false to any man. 

Miscellaneous Exercises for Analysis and 

Parsing. 

1. He is happiest, be he king or peasant, who finds peace in 
his home. 

2. To live in hearts we leave behind 
Is not to die. 

3. And still they gazed, and still the wonder grew 
That one small head could carry all he knew. 

4. Beautiful hands are those that do 
Work that is earnest and brave and true, 
Moment by moment, the long day through. 

5. If you do not wish a man to do a thing, you had better 
get him to talk about it; for the more men talk the more likely 
are they to do nothing else. 

6. Just before the action, Nelson ran up this signal to the 
mast-head of his ship, where all might see it : " England expects 
every man to do his duty." 

7. To each of these chairs was added a footstool, curiously 
carved and inlaid with ivory, which mark of distinction was pecul- 
iar to them. 

8. What you make of life it will be to you. Take it up 
bravely, bear it on cheerfully, lay it down triumphantly. 

9. The little rill near the source of one of the great American 
rivers is an interesting object to the traveller, who is apprised, as 
he steps across it or walks a few miles along its bank, that this is 
the stream which runs so far and gradually swells into so immense 
a flood. 

10. Twenty Norman knights, whose battered armor had flashed 
fiery and golden in the sunshine all day long and now looked 
silvery in the moonlight, dashed forward to seize the royal banner 
from the English knights and soldiers, still faithfully collected 
around their blinded king. 



ANALYSIS. 243 

11. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 

And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
Await alike the inevitable hour ; 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

12. The truly wise man will so speak that no one will observe 
how he speaks. 

13. The ancients believed that there are two gates of Sleep : 
one of horn, by which all true dreams go forth ; the other of ivory, 
by which the false ones issue. 

14. The Duke of Gloucester, only six years old, with a little 
musket on his shoulder, came to meet his uncle, and presented 
arms. " I am learning my drill," the child said, " that I may help 
you to beat the French/ ' 

15. Do all the good you can, to all the people you can, as long 
as ever you can, in every place you can. 

16. Now and then a crimson or yellow leaf winnows its way 
slowly down through the smoky light, and "the sound of dropping 
nuts is heard " in the still woods. 

17. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 

18. It was nine o'clock, and the adverse armies still stood 
motionless, each gazing on the other. 

19. Happy tte whom neither wealth nor fashion, 
Nor the march of the encroaching city gg* 
Drives an exile 

From the hearth of his ancestral homestead. 

20. Give what you have. To some one it may be better than 
you dare to think. 

21. Oh, what hadst thou to do with cruel Death, 
Who wast so full of life, or Death with thee, 

That thou shouldst die before thou hadst grown old ! 

22. Time has a doomsday-book upon whose pages he is con- 
tinually recording illustrious names. But, as often as a new name 
is written there, an old one disappears. 

23. One who is contented with what he has done will never 
become famous for what he will do. 

24. But the ship sailed safely over the sea, 

And the hunters came from the chase in glee, 
And the town that was builded upon a rock 
Was swallowed up in the earthquake-shock. 



244 ANALYSIS. 

25. He that cannot forgive others breaks the bridge over 
which he must pass himself; for every man has need to be for- 
given. 

26. Small service is true service while it lasts ; 

Of friends, however humble, scorn not one ; 
The daisy, by the shadow that it casts, 

Protects the lingering dew-drop from the sun. 

27. Firmly builded with rafters of oak, the house of the 
farmer stood on the side of a hill commanding the sea; and a 
shady sycamore grew by the door, with a woodbine wreathing 
around it. 

28. Love is sunshine, hate is shadow, 
Life is checkered shade and sunshine ; 
Rule by love, O Hiawatha. 

29. The wealth of Bruges and other Flemish cities was so 
enormous that, when the queen of France saw the ladies in their 
silks and jewels, she exclaimed in envious astonishment "Why, 
they are all queens here ! " 

30. The first message ever sent by a recording telegraph was 
forwarded May, 1844, between Washington and Baltimore, in these 
sublime words : " What hath God wrought ! " 

31. In Hampton meadows, where mowers laid 

Their scythes to the swaths of salted grass, 
" Ah, well-a-day ! oar hay must be made ! " 
A young man sighed, who saw them pass. 

32. Politeness is to goodness what words are to thought. 

33. His flag of truce being still fired upon, Montgomery caused 
the Indians in his camp to shoot arrows into the town, having 
letters attached to them, addressed to the inhabitants, represent- 
ing Carleton's refusal to treat, and advising them to rise in a body 
and compel him. 

34. In this wondrous world wherein we live, which is the world 
of Nature, man has made to himself another world hardly less 
wondrous, which is the world of Art. 

35. As the Sandwich Islander believes that the strength and 
valor of the enemy he kills passes into himself, so we gain the 
strength of the temptation we resist. 

36. William Caxton, a London merchant, having learned the 
new art of printing in Flanders, now returned to his native coun- 



ANALYSIS. 245 

try and set up a small press within the precincts of Westminster 
Abbey. 

37. Every sailor in the port 

Knows that I have ships at sea, 
Of the waves and winds the sport ; 
And the sailors pity me. 

38. English, Spanish, Dutch, and French voyagers sailed along 
the coast and up the rivers ; and each, on coming to a place which 
no one else had yet visited or described, planted upon it the flag 
of his own country, and set it down on his map as belonging to 
the sovereign whom he served. 

39. Who gives himself with his alms feeds three : 
Himself, his hungering neighbor, and me. 

40. An abundant supply of water, brought from the mountains 
by old Moorish aqueducts, circulates throughout the palace, sup- 
plying its baths and fish-pools, sparkling in jets within its halls, or 
running in channels along the marble pavements. 

41. Wisely and well said the Eastern bard : 
" Fear is easy, but love is hard." 

42. Pastor John Robinson, of the Pilgrim Church of Ley den, 
Holland, once wrote to Myles Standish, after that valiant captain 
had fought a battle with the natives : " Oh ! how happy a thing it 
would have been if you had converted some before you killed 
any ! " 

43. Where shall the singing bird a stranger be 
That finds a nest for him in every tree ? 
How shall he travel who can never go 
Where his own voice the echoes do not know, 

Where his own garden flowers no longer learn to grow ? 

44. Resolve to see the world on the sunny side, and you have 
almost won the battle of life at the outset. 

45. One may enter heaven as a king, crowned ; another enters 
11 so as by fire." 

46. All that thou canst call thine own 
Lies in thy to-day. 

47. We cannot honor our country with too deep a reverence ; 
we cannot love her with an affection too pure and fervent; we 
cannot serve her with an energy of purpose or a faithfulness of 
zeal too steadfast and ardent. 



246 ANALYSIS. 

48. Oh, better that her shattered hulk 

Should sink beneath the wave ! 
Her thunders shook the mighty deep, 

And there should be her grave. 
Nail to the mast her holy flag, 

Set every threadbare sail, 
And give her to the god of storms, 

The lightning and the gale ! 

49. When all was over, Wellington said to Blucher, as he stood 
by him on a little eminence looking down upon the field covered 
with the dead and dying, "A great victory is the saddest thing 
on earth, except a great defeat." 

50. Were a star quenched on high, 

For ages would its light, 
Still travelling downward from the sky, 

Shine on our mortal sight. 
So when a great man dies, 

For years beyond our ken 
The light he leaves behind him lies 

Upon the paths of men. 



INDEX. 



Numbers refer to paragraphs. 



Abbreviated clauses, 517. 

Absolute construction, 128, 438. 

Abstract nouns, 65. 

Accusative case, 107. 

Active forms of the verb, synopsis 
of, 349. 

Additional clauses, 516. 

Address, nominative of, 126. 

Adjectives, 23, 24, 201; used as 
nouns, 134: classes, 202; inflec- 
tion, 203; comparison, 204-213; 
proper, 214; articles, 215-220; 
numerals, 221-229; pronominals, 
230-239; form, 240-243 ; uses, 244- 
251 ; other parts of speech used as 
adjectives, 252; adjectives used 
as other parts of speech, 253, 254, 
389 ; parsing, 255. 

Adjective clauses, 179, 507; words 
introducing, 508. 

Adjective phrases, 395. 

Adverbs, 26, 27, 374 ; used as nouns, 
135; used as adjectives, 252; 
classes, 375, 376 ; conjunctive, 
377; clauses introduced by con- 
junctive adverbs, 378; interroga- 
tive, 379; use of there, 380; ad- 
verb phrases, 381; responsives, 
382; inflection, 383-385; simple, 
386; derivative, 387; compound, 
388; other parts of speech used 
as adverbs, 389 ; parsing, 390. 

Adverb clauses, 509; words intro- 
ducing, 510 ; classes, 511. 

Adverbial objective, 130, 131. 



Adverbial predicate adjective, 250. 

Adverb phrases, 396. 

Adversatives, 408. 

a few, a great many, 239. 

a fishing, 218. 

Alternative interrogatives, 484. 

Alternatives, 408. 

Analysis, 466; how different from 
parsing, 467; of compound sen- 
tences, 532 ; complex, 533. 

Anglo-Saxon, origin of name, 3. 

Animals, gender of nouns referring 
to, 162. 

Antecedent, 177 ; personal pronouns 
as, 189. 

Appositive adjectives. 246; nouns, 
125. 

Articles, 25, 202, 215; indefinite, 
216-218 ; definite, 219, 220. 

Aryan family of languages, 4. 

as, used as a relative pronoun, 
195. 

Assertive sentences, 52. 

Attributive adjective, 245. 

Auxiliary verbs, 328, 329. 

Bare subject and predicate, 39. 
Base of a sentence, 472. 
Britons, 2. 

but, used as a relative pronoun, 
196. 

Cardinals, 221 ; used as nouns, 222- 
225; numerals derived from car- 
dinals, 226. 

247 



248 



INDEX. 



Case of nouns, 105-119; pronouns, 
146-148. 

Causal conjunctions, 408. 

Classification of words, 14. 

Clauses, 42, 494; used as nouns, 
138; independent, 496; co-ordi- 
nate, 497, 498; dependent, 500, 
501; co-ordinate-dependent, 504; 
adjective, 179, 507, 508; adverb, 
509-511; substantive, 513, 514; 
additional, 516 ; abbreviated, 517 ; 
exclamatory dependent, 519. 

Collective nouns, 64. 

Common nouns, 63. 

Comparatives, 198. 

Comparison, of adjectives, 204-213 ; 
of adverbs, 383-385. 

Complement of verb, 44, 479. 

Complete subject and predicate, 41, 
48, 476. 

Complex sentences, 180, 502 ; varie- 
ties, 503; connectives used in, 
505; summary of facts concern- 
ing, 520-530. 

Compound-complex sentences, 506. 

Compound pronouns, personal, 164 ; 
relative, 188. 

Compound sentences, 479 ; summary 
of facts concerning, 520-530. 

Compound verbal forms, 330-360. 

Compound words, nouns, 79 ; plurals 
of, 100-103; possessive case of, 
116; compound adjectives, 243; 
adverbs, 388; verbs, 364; prepo- 
sitions, 402. 

Conditional verb-phrases, 338; use 
of should and would, 339 ; differ- 
ence between future and condi- 
tional, 340. 

Conjugation, 265 ; three forms of in- 
flection of verbs, 266 ; two conju- 
gations, 294; new conjugation, 
295 ; old, 296 ; regular verbs ; 298- 
300 ; signs of new, 303-305 ; irreg- 
ularities, 306-309; passive, 351; 
old conjugation, regular verbs, 



301, 302 ; signs, 310 ; irregularities, 
311-325 ; verb be, 326 ; alphabetical 
list of irregular verbs, 327. 

Conjunctions, 30, 31, 404; how dif- 
fering from prepositions, 405 ; co- 
ordinate words, 406 ; two classes 
of conjunctions, 407; co-ordinat- 
ing, 408 ; correlatives, 409 ; subor- 
dinating, 410 ; subordinate clauses, 
411, 412 ; phrases used as conjunc- 
tions, 413 ; parsing, 414. 

Conjunctive adverbs, 377 ; clause in- 
troduced by, 378. 

Co-ordinate clauses, 497; conjunc- 
tions used with, 498; dependent 
clauses, 504. 

Co-ordinate words, 406. 

Co-ordinating conjunctions, 408. 

Copulatives, 408. 

Correlative adverbs and conjunc- 
tions in complex sentences, 512. 

Correlative conjunctions, 419. 

Dative case, 129; dative objective, 
129. 

Declarative or assertive sentences, 
52. 

Declension, 82, 146. 

Degrees of comparison, 205. 

Demonstrative adjectives, 167, 234. 

Demonstrative pronouns, 165; in- 
flection, 166 ; uses, 167. 

Dependent clauses, 500; classes, 
501. 

Derivative words, nouns, 75-78; 
adjectives, 242; verbs, 363; ad- 
verbs, 387 ; prepositions, 402. 

Dialects of modern English, 9. 

Diminutives, 80. 

Distributives, 198. 

double, triple, etc., 229. 

dozen, 225. 

Elements of a sentence, 468 ; essen- 
tial, 469 ; subordinate, 470 ; inde- 
pendent, 471. 



INDEX. 



249 



Ellipsis, 517. 

Emphatic verb-phrases, 331-333 ; 
negative and interrogative uses, 
332 ; no passive forms, 353. 

England, derivation of name, 3; 
early inhabitants, 2. 

English, their coming into Britain, 3. 

English Grammar, definition, 12; 
usefulness of the study, 13. 

English Language, definition, 1; 
spread, 6 ; changes, 7 ; names, at 
different periods, 8; dialects of 
modern English, 9 ; good English 
and bad English, 10. 

Essential elements of a sentence, 
37, 469. 

Exclamation, nominative of, 127. 

Exclamatory phrases, 420. 

Exclamatory sentences, 57; inter- 
rogative form, 487; dependent 
form, 519. 

Factitive or objective predicate, 251. 

fir sty second, third, 227. 

Foreign nouns, plurals, 90 ; gender, 

70. 
Fr actionals, 228. 
Future-tense-phrases, 336; use of 

shall and will, 337. 

Gender in pronoun of third person, 
159; of personal pronouns refer- 
ring to animals, 162. 

Gender nouns, 67-72. 

Genitive case, 109. 

Germanic languages, 4. 

Good English, 10. 

Government and agreement, 367. 

Grammatical subject, 163. 

he and she, 161. 

herewith and thereioith, 168. 

hundred, thousand, etc., 224. 

Imperative sentences, 54, 488; sub- 
ject of, 56, 489. 
Imperative verb-phrases, 490. 



Impersonal object and subject of 
verb, 163. 

Indefinite numerals, 239. 

Indefinite pronominal adjectives, 
239. 

Indefinite pronouns, classes, 198; 
inflection, 199; indefinite rela- 
tives, 190. 

Independent clauses, 496. 

Independent elements of a sentence, 
471. 

Independent parts of speech, 40. 

Indirect object, 129; made the sub- 
ject, 360. 

Indo-European family of languages, 
4. 

Infinitives, 282, 283, 285-288; used 
as nouns, 136 ; double nature of, 
423; two simple infinitives, 424; 
infinitive phrases, 425, sign of 
root-infinitive, 426 ; omission of to, 
427; uses, 428, 429; peculiarities 
of participial infinitive, 430; spe- 
cial uses of root-infinitive, 431; 
parsing, 440. 

Infinitive phrases, 425. 

Inflection, 8; of nouns, 82; pro- 
nouns, 146 ; adjectives, 203 ; verbs, 
265, 266; adverbs, 383-385. 

Interjections, 32, 33, 415, 416 ; kinds, 
417 ; interrogative use, 418 ; other 
words used as interjections, 419; 
exclamatory phrases, 420 ; use of O 
with words of address, 421 ; pars- 
ing, 422. 

Interrogative adjectives, 175, 235. 

Interrogative adverbs, 379. 

Interrogative pronouns, 169; inflec- 
tion, 170, 171 ; uses, 173-175. 

Interrogative sentences, 53, 481 ; 
common form, 55, 482-485; in 
assertive form, 486 ; exclamatory 
sentences in interrogative form, 
487; 

Intransitive verbs, 261 ; used transi- 
tively, 263, 264. 



250 



INDEX. 



Irregular comparison of adjectives, 

211. 
Irregular verbs, alphabetical list of, 

327. 
it, special uses of, 163. 

Language and grammar, 11. 
less and least, 210. 
Logical subject, 163. 

may and can, 344. 

might and could, 344. 

mine, ours, thine, as pronominal 

adjectives, 233. 
Modes, 270, 271; indicative, 272; 

subjunctive, 273, 274 ; imperative, 

275, 276. 
Modifiers of subject and predicate, 

48, 477, 478. 
more and most, 207. 
Multiplicatives, 229. 
must and ought, 345. 

Neuter nouns, 68. 

Nominative case of nouns, 106; 
predicate nominative, 124; nom- 
inative of address, 126; of excla- 
mation, 126 ; nominative indepen- 
dent, 126; absolute, 128. 

Norman Conquest, 5. 

Noun clauses, 138 ; uses, 513 ; words 
introducing, 514. 

Nouns, 17, 18, 58, 59; test of, 60; 
two great classes, 61 ; proper, 62 ; 
common, 63; collective, 64; ab- 
stract, 65 ; verbal, 6Q ; gender, 67- 
72; neuter, 68; simple, 74; deriva- 
tive, 75-78 ; compound, 79 ; dimin- 
utives, 80; inflection, 82, 121; 
number-forms, 83 ; plurals, 84-104 ; 
person, 120; uses, 123-132; other 
parts of speech used as nouns, 
133-136; substantive phrases, 137; 
substantive clauses, 138, 513, 514 ; 
used as adjectives, 252; used as 
adverbs, 389; parsing, 141. 

Number-forms of nouns, 83. 



Numerals, 202, 221 ; cardinals, 221- 
226; ordinals, 227; fractional, 
228; multiplicatives, 229; indefi- 



nite, 239. 



Object, indirect, 129 ; made the sub- 
ject, 360. 

Objective case of nouns, 107. 

Objective predicate, 132. 

Objective or factitive predicate ad- 
jective, 251. 

Object of preposition, 49, 392, 393. 

Object of transitive verb, 47. 

Obligatives, 345. 

Old English, 8. 

Omission of that, 191, 192, 515. 

Omission of to, the sign of the in- 
finitive, 427. 

once, twice, etc., 229. 

one and other, 199. 

Ordinals, 227. 

other, as pronominal adjective, 239. 

our and ours, 152. 

ourself, 151. 

O used with words of address, 421. 

Parsing, 140 ; of nouns, 141 ; pro- 
nouns, 200; adjectives, 255; verbs 
and verb-phrases, 372, 373; ad- 
verbs, 390; prepositions, 403; con- 
junctions, 414; interjections, 422; 
infinitives and participles, 440. 

Participles, 282, 284, 285, 289-293, 
432; as predicate adjectives, 356; 
two simple participles, 433; par- 
ticiple phrases, 434; uses, 435- 
437; absolute construction, 438; 
participles used as nouns, 439; 
parsing, 440. 

Participle phrases, 434. 

Parts of speech, 16; summary of, 
34; independent, 40. 

Passive verb-phrases, 350; passive 
conjugation, 351 ; synopsis of pas- 
sive forms, 352 ; no emphatic 
forms, 353; progressive forms, 



INDEX. 



251 



354; difference between passive 
and progressive forms, 355; par- 
ticiples as predicate adjectives, 
356; how to know passive verb- 
phrases, 357 ; made from transi- 
tive verbs, 358 ; intransitive verbs 
made passive, 359; indirect object 
made the subject, 360. 

Perfect and progressive forms of 
verb-phrases, 346; of infinitives 
and participles, 348. 

Perfect-tense phrases, 341 ; six tenses 
of the verb, 342. 

Person, of nouns, 120 ; of pronouns, 
147 ; person and number of verbs, 
277-281. 

Personal pronouns, 147; irregular 
inflection of, 148 ; declension, 149, 
153, 160 ; plural forms of first per- 
son, 150, 151. 

Phrases, 43, 494 ; possessive case of, 
117 ; used as nouns, 137. 

Plurals, of nouns, 84 ; in es, 85 ; of 
letters, figures, and signs, 86; of 
nouns ending in / or fe, 87 ; in y, 
88 ; in o, 89 ; of foreign nouns, 90 ; 
in en, 91; formed by internal 
changes, 92 ; same form for both 
numbers, 93 ; nouns with no plu- 
ral, 94 ; nouns always plural, 95 ; 
plural form with singular mean- 
ing, 96 ; of proper nouns, 97 ; of 
titles, 98; of compound nouns, 
100-103; two plurals, 104; pos- 
sessive case, 114, 115 ; of personal 
pronouns, 150, 151, 158; nouns 
and pronouns in possessive form 
after the preposition of, 110, 152j 
of numerals used as nouns, 223. 

Possessive case, 109; equivalent to 
objective with preposition, 110 ; of 
singular nouns, 112, 113 ; of plural 
nouns, 114, 115; of compound 
nouns, 116; of phrases, 117; of 
nouns denoting joint possession, 
118; separate possession, 119. 



Possessive pronominal adjectives, 
232, 233. 

Potential verb-phrases, 343; may 
and can, 344 ; must and ought, 345. 

Predicate adjectives, 46, 247; special 
classes, 249. 

Predicate nouns, 45, 124. 

Prefix, 76. 

Prepositions, 28, 29, 391; object of 
49,392, 393; used as adjectives 
252; used as adverbs, 389, 399 
prepositional phrases, 49, 394-396 
phrases used as prepositions, 397 
at end of sentence, 398; as con- 
junctions, 400 ; simple, 401 ; deriv- 
ative and compound, 402; pars- 
ing, 403. 

Principal clauses, 496. 

Progressive verb-phrases, 334, 335. 

Pronominal adjectives, 230; classes, 
231 ; possessives, 232, 233 ; demon- 
strative, 234; interrogative, 235; 
relative, 236-238 ; indefinite, 239. 

Pronouns, 19, 20, 142 ; how differing 
from nouns, 143; distinction be- 
tween pronouns and adjectives, 
144 ; classes, 145 ; inflection, 146 ; 
personal, 147-163 ; compound per- 
sonal, 164; thou and ye, as nomi- 
natives of address, 156 ; reflexive, 
164; demonstrative, 165-168; in- 
terrogative, 169-175; relative or 
conjunctive, 176-197; indefinite, 
198, 199 ; parsing, 200. 

Proper adjectives, 214. 

Proper nouns, 62; plurals, 97. 

quarter, 228. 

Questions answered by yes and no, 
483; not so answered, 485. 

Reciprocals, 198. 

Reflexive use of pronouns, 164. 

Relative adjectives, 197. 

Relative adverbs, 193, 378. 

Relative clauses, 179. 

Relative or conjunctive pronouns, 



252 



INDEX. 



176 ; antecedent of, 177 ; uses, 178 ; 
indefinite, 190; other parts of 
speech used as, 193-196 ; used as 
adjectives, 197. 

Relative words representing depend- 
ent clauses, 518. 

Responsives, 382. 

Root-infinitives, 287; sign of, 426; 
omission of to, 427 ; special uses, 
431. 

Rules of syntax, 442-460 ; summary, 
461-465. 

score, 225. 

Sentences, 15; definition, 36; main 
parts, 37 ; order of parts, 38 ; kinds, 
51-54; elements, 468; essential, 
469; subordinate, 470; independ- 
ent, 471; base, 472; simple sen- 
tence, 473 ; compound subject and 
predicate, 474, 475 ; complete sub- 
ject and predicate, 476; modifiers 
of subject and predicate, 477, 478 ; 
complement of predicate, 479; 
compound modifiers, 480; inter- 
rogative sentences, 481-487; im- 
perative, 488, 489; imperative 
verb-phrases, 490 ; analysis of sim- 
ple sentences, 491 ; compound, 532 ; 
complex, 533 ; three classes of, 493. 

Sentence-making, 50. 

shall and ivill, 337. 

should and would, 339. 

Sign of the infinitive, 426 ; omission 
of, 427. 

Simple infinitives, 424. 

Simple participles, 433. 

Simple sentences, 473; with com- 
pound subject or predicate, 474, 
475 ; modifiers of subject and pred- 
icate, 477, 478; complement of 
predicate, 479; compound modi- 
fiers, 480 ; interrogative, 481-487 ; 
imperative, 488, 489; imperative 
verb-phrases, 490; analysis, 491; 
simple sentences combined, 492. 



Simple words, nouns, 74 ; adjectives, 
241; verbs, 362; adverbs, 386 
prepositions, 401. 

Special uses of it, 163. 

Subject and predicate, 37; bare, 39 
complete, 41, 476. 

Subordinate clauses, 138 ; uses, 513 
words introducing, 514. 

Subordinating con junctions, 410, 412 

Subordinate elements of a sentence 
470. 

Substantives, 133. 

Substantive conjunction, 412. 

such, as pronominal adjective, 239. 

Suffix, 77. 

Summary of facts, concerning parts 
of speech, 34; simple sentences, 
461-465; compound and complex 
sentences, 520-530. 

Syntax, 441 ; rules of, 442, 460 ; sum- 
mary of rules, 461-465. 

Tenses, 267, 268; historical present 
tense, 269 ; six tenses of the verb, 
342. 

that, as relative pronoun, 184-186; 
omission of, 191, 192, 515. 

there, 380. 

this and that, as demonstrative pro- 
noun, 203; as demonstrative ad- 
jective, 234. 

thou, thy, thine, thee, 154. 

Titles, plurals of, 98. 

to, the sign of the infinitive, 426; 
omission of, 427. 

Transitive verbs, 258, 260 ; object of, 
47, 259 ; used intransitively, 262. 

twain, 225. 

Uses of adjectives, 244; attributive, 
245; appositive, 246; predicative, 
247 ; adverbial predicate, 249, 250 ; 
objective or factitive predicate, 
249, 251 ; as nouns, 134. 

Uses of infinitives, 428, 429 ; peculiar- 
ities of participial infinitive, 430 ; 
special uses of root-infinitive, 431. 



INDEX. 



253 



Uses of nouns, 123 ; predicate nomi- 
native, 124; appositive, 125 ; nomi- 
native of address, 126 ; nominative 
of exclamation, 127; nominative 
absolute, 128 ; indirect object, 129; 
adverbial objective, 130, 131; ob- 
jective predicate, 132. 

Uses of participles, 435 ; as attribu- 
tive and predicate adjectives, 436 ; 
appositively, 437 ; absolutely, 438 ; 
as nouns, 439. 

Uses of pronouns, special uses of it, 
163 ; demonstrative pronouns, 167; 
interrogatives, 169, 172-174 ; rela- 
tives, 178, 181-187 ; constructions, 
190. 

Uses of verbs, predicate of sentence, 
366, 367 ; impersonal, 368 ; reflex- 
ive, 369; with collective nouns, 
370; with connected subjects, 371. 

Verbal adjectives, 284, 289, 432. 

Verbal nouns, 66, 283, 423. 

Verbs, 21, 22, 256, 257 ; complement 
of, 44, 479; used as adjectives, 
252; of incomplete predication, 
248; transitive and intransitive, 
258-264; conjugation, 265; three 
forms of inflection, 266 ; tense, 
267-269; mode, 270-276; person 
and number, 277-281; infinitives 
and participles, 282-293 ; new and 
old conjugations, 294-296 ; princi- 
pal parts, 297; regular verbs of 
new conjugation, 298-300; regu- 
lar verbs of old conjugation, 301, 
302; signs of new conjugation, 
303-305; irregularities, 306-309; 
marks of old conjugation, 310; 
irregularities, 311-325; conjuga- 
tion of be, 326; alphabetical list 
of irregular verbs, 327 ; auxiliary 
verbs, 328, 329 ; verb-phrases, 330 
emphatic verb-phrases, 331-333 
progressive verb-phrases, 334, 335 
future - tense - phrases, 336, 337 



conditional verb-phrases, 338-340 
perfect - tense - phrases, 341, 342 
potential verb-phrases, 342-345 
perfect and progressive forms, 
346, 347 ; of infinitives and parti- 
ciples, 348; synopsis of active 
forms of verb, 349 ; passive verb- 
phrases, 350, 351 ; synopsis of pas- 
sive forms, 352 ; progressive forms, 
354; difference between passive 
and progressive, 355; participles 
as predicate adjectives, 356 ; how 
to know passive verb-phrases, 357 ; 
passive phrases made from transi- 
tive verbs, 358 ; intransitive verbs 
made passive, 359; indirect ob- 
ject made the subject, 360; sim- 
ple verb, 362; derivative, 363; 
compound, 364; other parts of 
speech turned into verbs, 365; 
government and agreement, 367; 
uses, 366-371 ; imperative verb- 
phrases, 490; parsing, 372, 373. 

what, interrogative pronoun, 173; 
relative pronoun, 187, 188; rela- 
tive adjective, 236; interrogative 
adjective, 235. 

whether, 172. 

ivhich, interrogative pronoun, 174; 
relative pronoun, 182, 188; inter- 
rogative adjective, 235; relative 
adjective, 236, 237. 

whichever and ivhatever, relative 
adjectives, 238. 

who, interrogative pronoun, 173; 
relative, 181, 188. 

whose, possessive of which, 183. 

Words, classification of, 14; use in 
sentences, 15; referred to merely 
as words, 139; of number and 
quantity, 198. 

ye, 155, 156. 

yon and yonder, 234. 

you, 157. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



WENTWOKTH'S AEITHMETIOS. 

Adopted for exclusive use in the State of Washington, and in countless 
cities, towns, and schools. 



MASTERY: their motto. 

LEARN TO DO BY DOING: their method. 

PRACTICAL ARITHMETICIANS: the result. 



WENTWORTH'S PRIMARY ARITHMETIC. 

By G. A. Wentworth, Professor of Mathematics in Phillips Exe- 
ter Academy, and Miss E. M. Reed, Principal of the Training 
School, Springfield, Mass. Profusely illustrated. Introduction 
price, 30 cents ; allowance for old book in exchange, 10 cents. 

In a word, this book — the fruit of the most intelligent and pains- 
taking study, long-continued — is believed to represent the best 
known methods of presenting numbers to primarians, and to pre- 
sent these methods in the most available form. It is commended 
as profoundly philosophical in method, simple and ingenious in 
development, rich and varied in matter, attractive in style, and prac- 
tical in effect. 

It has been carefully and critically examined by myself and my teachers, and in our 
estimation it stands ahead of anything else of the kind that we have found. — Principal 
Campbell, State Normal School, Johnson, Vt, 

WENTWORTH'S GRAMMAR SCHOOL ARITHMETIC. 

Illustrated. Introductory price, 65 cents; allowance, 20 cents. 
Answers free on teachers' orders. 

Intended to follow the Primary Arithmetic and make with that a 
two-book series for common schools. It is designed to give pupils 
of the grammar school age an intelligent knowledge of the subject 
and a moderate power of independent thought, by training them to 
solve problems by neat and intelligent methods and keeping them 
free from set rules and formulas. It is characterized by accuracy, 
thoroughness, good sense, school-room tact, and practical ingenuity. 

Eminently practical, well graded, and well arranged. ... I consider it the brightest, 
most attractive, most scholarly text-book on this subject that has been issued for years. 
— Principal Serviss, A msterdam, JV. V. 

In a word, these books represent the Best Methods, made feasible, 
with the Best Problems, — ingenious, varied, practical, and abundant 



GINN & COMPANY, Publishers, 

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40 cts. Introd. TARBELL S 

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE 

By H. S. TARBELL, 

Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R.I. 



Here is at last a series that harmonizes ' ' language " and ' ' gram- 
mar" and makes expression through written forms as natural as 
thought a7id speech. 

It is believed that nothing crude, notional, or simply "taking" 
will be found in the books, however original and attractive they may 
seem. Five years were spent in maturing the plan, and five years 
more in working out the details. The most approved text-books — 
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experience of hundreds of teachers and the capacities of thousands 
of pupils were consulted. 

A course in which so much good thought has been embodied must 
possess marked features worthy of attention. The appeal is confi- 
dently made to the class-room. All are urged to test our recom- 
mendations by actual use. 

COMMENTS ON BOOK I. 

J. W. Barnard, Prof, of Language ,- State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, 
Mo. : It is well adapted to the work of the lower grades. It is systematic and 
well graded, full of needful information, and cannot fail to lay a good founda- 
tion for the development of pure English. 

A. S. Olin, Supt. of Public Schools, Kansas City, Kan. : In matter, method, 
and style it is very attractive, and up to the highest standard of excellence in 
language work. 

A. W. Hussey, Supt. of Public Schools, Warsaw, III. : In selection of 
matter, illustrations, and practical adaptation to plain every-day work in the 
class-room, it pleases me better than any book on the subject I have seen. 

F. Treudley, Supt. of Schools, Youngstown, Ohio : It is my judgment that 
this book is a very practical one. There is a wide difference among books as 
to their practical utility in the class-room : some are very helpful to one class of 
teachers on account of their suggestiveness ; others are helpful to another class 
because they enter more into details. To strike the golden medium is a very 
difficult thing. 

W. S. Montgomery, Supervising Prin. of Public Schools, Washington, D.C.: 
I like the plan of the work much, especially the practical line followed. Imita- 
tion and usage are the grand avenues to the proper acquisition of language, and 
the author has emphasized that fact. 



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STICKNEY'S READERS. 

Introductory to Classics for Children. By J. H. Stickney, author of The 
Child^s Book of Language, Letters and Lessons hi Language, English 
Grammar, etc. Introduction Prices : First Reader, 24 cents; Second 
Reader, 32 cents; Third Reader, 40 cents; Fourth Reader, 50 cents; 
exchange allowances respectively of 5 cents, 8 cents, 10 cents, and 10 
cents. Auxiliary Books : Stickney & Peabody's First Weeks at School, 
12 cents; Stickney's Classic Prh?ier, 20 cents. 

These books are, first of all, readers. This main purpose is 
not sacrificed in order to get in all sorts of "features" to entrap 
the unwary. 

The vitality of methods and selections preserves the chil- 
dren's natural vivacity of thought and expression. 

The editor aimed at positive excellence, and not simply to 
make a series so characterless that no one, however unreason- 
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to find fault with. 

This is almost the only series that contains a sufficient quan- 
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Good reading would not be good if it did not appeal to what 
is good in us, and the lessons in Stickney's Readers, without 
" moralizing," carry moral influence in warp and woof. 

Give the children a chance at these Readers. They are the 
ones most interested. Ought we not to consult their tastes, 
which mean their capacities? Their ^erdict is always for 
Stickney. 

When it is a question of obstacles, wings are sometimes 
worth more than feet. Stickney's Readers are inspiring, and 
lift the children over difficulties. 

Best in idea and plan ; best in matter and make ; best in 
interest and results. 

They have found favor with our teachers and pupils from the first. To 
me the books seem to be just what the gifted author intended them to be, 
as natural and beautiful as childhood itself. They deserve the greatest 
success. — -A. R. Sabin, Assistant Supt., Chicago, III. 



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A REVOLUTION IN SCHOOL READING 



HAS BEEN WROUGHT BY THE USE OF THE 

Classics for Children. 

The books in this carefully edited series are widely used 
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of the Grammar Schools and in the High Schools. They 
are also used as Supplementary Readers in hundreds of 
schools throughout the country. 

DESIGN — 

To supply material for practice in reading, form a taste for 
good literature, and increase the mental power of the pupils 
by providing them with the best works of standard authors, 
complete as far as possible, and judiciously annotated. 

AUTHORSHIP — 

Varied, and of world-wide reputation. In the list of authors 
are Shakespeare, Ruskin, Scott, Irving, Goldsmith, Johnson, 
Franklin, Andersen, Kingsley, De Foe, Swift, Arnold, and Lamb. 

EDITORS — 

Of recognized ability and discriminating taste. Among them 
are John Fiske, Edward Everett Hale, Henry N. Hudson 
Charlotte M. Yonge, John Tetlow, Homer B. Sprague, D. H. 
Montgomery, Edwin Ginn, W. H. Lambert, Alfred J. Church, 
Dwight Holbrook, J. H. Stickney, Margaret A. Allen, and Mary 
S. Avery. 

INDORSED BY — 

Teachers, Superintendents, Librarians, eminent Literary 
Authorities, and the Educational Press. 



CLASSICS FOR CHILDREN. 



Choice Literature; Judicious Notes; Large Type; Firm Binding; 

Low Prices. 



Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales. 

* First Series : Supplementary to the Third Reader. 

* Second Series : Supplementary to the Fourth Reader. 
*.3£sop's Fables, with selections from Krilof and La Fontaine. 
*Kingsley , s Water-Babies : A story for a Land-Baby. 
*Ruskin's King of the Golden River: A Legend of Stiria. 
The Swiss Family Robinson. Abridged. 

Robinson Crusoe. Concluding with his departure from the island. 
*Kingsley's Greek Heroes. 

Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare. " Meas. for Meas." omitted. 

Martineau's Peasant and Prince. 

Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. 

Scott's Marmion ; Lady of the Lake ; Lay of the Last Minstrel. 

Lamb's Adventures of Ulysses. 

Tom Brown at Rugby. 

Church's Stories of the Old World. 

Scott's Quentin Durward. Slightly abridged. 

Irving's Sketch Book. Six Selections, including " Rip Van Winkle." 

Irving's Alhambra. 

Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice. 

Scott's Old Mortality; Ivanhoe; Talisman; Rob Roy; Guy Man- 
nering ; Tales of a Grandfather. Each complete. 

Johnson's Rasselas : Prince of Abyssinia. 

Gulliver's Travels. The Voyages to Lilliput and Brobdingnag. 
*Plutarch's Lives. From Clough's Translation. 

Irving-Fiske's Washington and His Country. 

Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield. 
*Franklin : His Life by Himself. 

Selections from Ruskin. 

Heroic Ballads. 
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Grote and Segur's Two Great Retreats. 



Starred books are illustrated. 



CINN & COMPANY, Publishers, 

Boston, New York, and Chicago. 



OPEN SESAME! 

About One Thousand Pieces of the Choicest Prose and Verse. 

compiled by 
Blanche Wilder Bellamy and Maud Wilder Goodwin. 

VOL. I. for children from four to ten years old. 
VOL. II. for children from ten to fourteen years old. 
VOL. III. for children of a larger growth. 

Illustrated, and handsomely bound in cloth. Price of each to 
teachers, and for intro dice Hon, 75 cents. 



No Eastern romancer ever dreamed of such a treasure-house 
as our English literature. 

With this " Open Sesame " in his possession a boy or girl 
has only to enter and make its wealth his own. 

Every piece is believed to be worth carrying away in the 
memory. 

The best writings of our classic authors are here, with selec- 
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It is very good indeed. We think it the best of all the collections. — E. A. 
SHELDON, Prin. State Normal School, Oswego, N. Y. 

I think it by far the best collection of memory pieces I have ever seen. — 
F. B. PALMER, Prin. State Normal School, Fredonia, N. Y. 

It is a beauty, and of all similar works I have seen, it has the most desira- 
ble selections. — W. E. BUCK, Supt. Public Schools, Manchester, N.H. 

The book is a handsome specimen of the arts of typography and binding, 
while the selections and their arrangement speak well for the judgment and 
taste of the editors. — Chas. W. Cole, Supt. Public Schools, Alba??y> N. Y. 

It [Volume I.] is a rare and rich collection of poems and a few prose 
articles. — INTER-OCEAN, Chicago. 

The whole book is full to overflowing of the best things to be found in the 
English language, and is a thoroughly happy production which children, 
parents, and teachers will welcome eagerly. — EDUCATION, Boston. 

It is not often that a collection of verse so thoroughly representative of what 
is best in literature, and so inclusive of what one has learned to love and to 
look for in every anthology, comes from the press. — CHRISTIAN Union, 
New York. 

The editors have brought to their task a sufficiently wide and sympathetic 
knowledge of English and American verse, and have also wisely considered the 
real needs and tastes of children. . . . The collection is at once of a high char- 
acter and of a practicable sort. — SUNDAY School Times, Philadelphia. 



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THE NATIONAL MUSIC COURSE 

AIMS 

To place vocal music on the same footing as the regular school studies, and 
enable the class teachers to give successful instruction in music, as m geog- 
raphy and arithmetic, under competent direction. 

IT HAS SUCCEEDED 

Fully, as the list of places using it proves. The testimony of teachers, 
superintendents, and musicians is unmistakable evidence of its excellence 
and superiority. 

" If there is any argument in pure merit, the National should head the list of music 
courses. . . . Very rarely is as much genius, study, and research devoted to the prepara- 
tion of a series of books as has been given by Professor Mason to the National Course. 
The books stand the severest tests of time and use." — T. E. Hazell, Special Teacher 
Of Music, New York City, 



MORE 

THAN 

ANY 

OTHER 



endorsed by wide use and satisfactory results, 
approved by musical authorities here and abroad, 
recommended on a careful examination of its merits, 
enjoyed by the teachers who teach and the children who study it* 



SOME POINTS OF EXCELLENCE. 



x. It is based on the fundamental principles of education. 

2. It combines the best musical theory with the best methods of teaching, analogous 
to those followed in other branches of school study, particularly the teaching of language. 

3. The instruction is comprehensive and thorough, systematically and progressively 
developed from the lowest grades to the highest, and fitted to the school-room and the 
usual course of study. 

4. The best composers are represented, and the best song-writers. 

5. The music is taking and interesting to children; it wears well, and does not grow 
stale. 

6. The literature is appropriate, dignified, and improving. 

7. It presents the fruit of the best musical study and experience in all countries. 

8. It is endorsed by long and wide use, in America and in foreign countries. 

9. It is endorsed by practical teachers of school iP"sic, by superintendents, by clas3 
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10. Those who have most thoroughly studied the System are most firmly convinced ol 
its excellence and its superiority. 

11. Thoroughly tested under most varied conditions, it is beyond the period of 
experiment. 

12. It is fresh and abreast of the times, and will always be kept in line with the newest 
approved thought. 

13. It exerts a strong influence toward the good order of the scLuol and tke refinement 
of the pupils. 

14. It not only appeals to the musical children, but awakens and develops the un 
musical. 

15. It requires but little time, is not expensive, and can certainly be handled by the 
regular teachers under proper supervision. 

16. Properly taught, it is sure to produce the desired result. 



CINN & COMPANY, Publishers, 

Boston, New York, and Chicago. 



MONTGOMERY'S 

Histories of England and France are said by all to be, in theii 
departments, unequalled in scholarship, in true historic insight 
and temper, in interest and class-room availability. They are 
admittedly the 

LEADING 

text-books on their subjects. Their popularity and wide use 
have been duly proportionate to their merits. Hundreds 
of schools have introduced them, and all report the greatest 
satisfaction. These 

FACTS 

led every one to expect a great deal of the author's History of 
the United States. No one has been disappointed. The attrac- 
tive and enduring qualities of the other books are here found 
in even higher degree. Not the least 

OF 

these are the numberless incidental touches of thought, fact, 
or feeling that illuminate the narrative, and both stimulate and 
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oughly 

AMERICAN 

in his sympathies and feelings, — too American, in fact, to be 
sectarian, partisan, local, or narrow, — and so we find remark- 
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book. What we have is, in short, a 

HISTORY 

of the American people, of its development in all departments 
of activity, with both the causes and the results of great move- 
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leading facts of our history. 

Introductory Price, $1.00. 

GINN & COMPANY, Publishers, 

BOSTON, NEW YORK, AND CHICAGO. 



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